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Jehovah's Witnesses are members of an international restorationist^[1][2] religious denomination of the same name. The religion grew out of the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell. The name "Jehovah's Witnesses", based on Isaiah 43:10, was adopted at a 1931 convention of Bible Students while under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Identification of the religion as Christian, among other controversies, is debated largely due to their disputing the Trinity, which most Christian religions regard as a fundamental doctrine. They believe God (Jehovah) is the creator, and Jesus is His son.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that God's name, in English,^[3] is Jehovah, a vocalized form of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton יהוה appearing throughout the Hebrew Scriptures, and that use of the name is a requirement for true worship. Jehovah's Witnesses view Jehovah as the supreme being and creator of everything, the sovereign of the universe.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is the only-begotten Son of God, and is thus considered to be an independent entity from Jehovah who used him as a helper to create everything else.^[4] He is the only means by which to approach God in prayer, and is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind.^[5] They believe that Jesus Christ is head of the Christian Congregation, and all must obey him. His role as mediator of the "new covenant" is limited to those going to heaven to rule along with Christ,^[6] whose number totals 144,000. They believe that Jesus was executed by being nailed to a 'torture stake,' as opposed to a cross. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is also known in the Bible as the archangel Michael, and Abaddon (Appolyon).

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind, and that 144,000 anointed people will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during the Millennial Reign. Witnesses believe that during the imminent war of Armageddon, the wicked will be destroyed, and survivors, along with millions of others who will be resurrected, will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise. The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live on a renewed paradise on Earth.^[7] The holy spirit is not a person but is God's active force.^[8] The soul is the person itself, not an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body.^[9] Thus, souls of deceased persons are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.^[10] Hades or Sheol is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment.^[11][12] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that October of 1914 marks the return, or "presence", of Christ as king of God's kingdom, which is understood to have occurred invisibly in heaven. They believe that his first act as king was to throw Satan out of heaven, which they teach was the cause of World War I. In 1918, those of the 144,000 who had died are believed to have been resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life. Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are believed to be immediately resurrected to heavenly life, based on their understanding of 1 Corinthians 15:51, 52. Armageddon is considered to be imminent.^[13] After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction.^[14] Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only Jehovah's Witnesses will survive God's judgment of the world.^[15] They also teach that it is up to Jesus, and not people, to judge individuals.^[16] Regarding the fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, the Witnesses say "we may not know how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way." ^[17][18] After Armageddon, an unknown number of people, both righteous and unrighteous, who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.^[19]

Jehovah's Witnesses consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, to be the inspired word of God. They prefer their own translation of the Bible, the New World translation, first published in 1950 by Watchtower Bible and Tract Society but occasionally cite other translations.^[20] They interpret most scriptures literally,^[21] but they believe that biblical writers and characters often employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism.^[22] Thus, they insist that they are not 'fundamentalists' who they feel are in error in taking a strictly literal view of the Bible.^[23][24][25] They hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.^[26]

Their view of morality reflects the usual conservative Christian views, with some differences. Homosexuality and premarital sex are considered sins.^[27] Abortion is considered murder.^[28] Modesty is strongly encouraged in dress and grooming. Gambling is strictly forbidden.^[29] The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.^[30] Blood is not to be eaten, sucked, stored or transfused. Medical procedures involving certain blood fractions are left to conscience.

Practices associated with nationalism or other religions^[31] are avoided. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe only their religion represents true Christianity. They believe that no other religion meets all the requirements set by God. They believe that all other religions and their practices will eventually be done away with.^[32] Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations or national holidays such as birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are regarded as pagan holidays and are not celebrated.^[33]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.^[34] They believe that such an act would be tantamount to worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including the paying of taxes of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.^[35] The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service - even when it is compulsory - and by their detachment from secular politics. Voting in political elections would be considered as compromising their Christian neutrality.

Witnesses are perhaps best known for the efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people house to house,^[36][37] but also in a variety of other ways. Free home Bible studies are offered to persons having questions or interest in their beliefs. They use Watchtower publications to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with some publications being available in as many as 410 languages. Witnesses are encouraged to devote as much time as possible in preaching activities.

They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Bible principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.^[38][39][40] Members are encouraged to participate in the preaching work and if possible to give a voluntary donation to the Watchtower Society's "Worldwide Work" fund.^[41]

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding Kingdom Halls, but usually, assistance is provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.^[42][43] Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims rebuilding (Kingdom halls) during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees.^[44] Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work and rebuilding Kingdom Halls after Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.^[45]

Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown, on the date corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover, Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar (usually in March or April).^[46] Typically, in most congregations, no one partakes during this annual event, because only the members of the 144,000 or "The Anointed" partake in the emblems of the wine and matzo. In the Bible it also mentions that those who partake in the emblems will be judged by Jehovah. According to witness publications, as of 2008, about 9,000+ persons - an increase from the previous year - did partake in the emblems. These 144,000 anticipate being resurrected to heaven after their death. Almost all Witnesses today believe their future hope is to live after Armageddon, on a paradise earth which will be governed by Jesus and his heavenly government.

Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to make spiritual matters the top priority in their life. Thus, higher education (college and university) is not a focus for most Witness youth, though a personal decision. It is encouraged that an individual carefully consider whether or not to pursue secondary education because of the perceived risks of difficulty in balancing spiritual requirements and the costs in terms of time and financial resources, since Witnesses view time as short for their global ministry.^[47] However, as a matter of conscience it is to be considered individually, and if chosen should be kept secondary to spiritual responsibilities. ^[48] Another is their concern that college may expose youths to numerous associations and activities viewed as harmful. Secondary education is pursued with the intent of caring for one's personal needs and not the pursuit of status or prestige. Members are directed to ask themselves questions, such as, "How might being immersed in an atmosphere of intense competition and selfish materialism affect you?"^[49] A similar question cites a study stating that in some universities "Drugs and alcohol are used freely, and promiscuity is the rule" and asks "might living there thwart your efforts to remain morally clean?"^[50] But if they must attend a university, they are encouraged to keep themselves "spiritually strong". Young Witnesses are reminded that "some youths who have been obliged to attend university have even managed to be pioneers (full time Witness ministers) by choosing a schedule of courses that made that possible."^[51][52][53]

Jehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline administered by elders in the congregation. These include:^[54][55][56]

Marking is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping (shunning). Marking is based on their understanding of 2 Thessalonians 3:6, and used only if the person repeatedly refuses counsel^[57] and the conduct of the individual is considered a "spiritual danger" to the members of the congregation. A talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual).^[58] Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would be minimized.^[59]

Reproof involves sins for which one could be disfellowshipped. But if “true repentance” is shown, the person is not disfellowshipped, but merely reproved.^[60] Reproof may be given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.^[61]

Disfellowshipping is the most severe form of discipline. Congregation members avoid all social and/or spiritual association with disfellowshipped individuals.^[62] Disfellowshipped members can attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.^[63] Each year, the elders make an attempt to remind disfellowshipped ones of the steps they can take to qualify for reinstatement.

Regarding child abuse, unless a confession is made, the religion will act only on cases where there have been two witnesses, based on the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15 - "No single witness should rise up against a man ... At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of three witnesses the matter should stand good". "However, the elders are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses ... if local privacy laws permit. They also comply with laws requiring even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to be reported to the authorities. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."^[64][65] In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation"^[66] Announcements to the congregation would follow organization policy regarding 'serious sins'.^[67]

The official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses regards blood as sacred and rejects allogeneic and pre-operative autologous transfusions of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.^[68] This is based on an understanding of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from ... blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11,12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood ... No soul of you shall eat blood," and of Genesis 9:3, 4, which they understand to be the first instance of "the Bible’s clear prohibition against taking blood into the body."^[69] Although accepted by a majority of Jehovah's Witnesses, some reject these teachings and accept blood.^{[70][71][72][73]}

Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood are subject to organized communal shunning.^{[74][75][76][77]} However, it is a personal decision on how their "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."^[78][79] This is qualified by their understanding that "collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy," so their position is they do not "store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out."^[80] Of course, in current medical practice, whole blood transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used instead.^[81] While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept fractions made from these components.^[82][83] However, if a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them but is permissible.^[84]

Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths.^[85] Witnesses also cite various health risks associated with blood transfusions, including HIV, hepatitis, and other blood-borne diseases, sometimes resulting in death.^[86] However, they indicate that such medical risks are secondary to their religious reasons for refusing blood.

Ethical concerns in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes.^[87] Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion.^[88] Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience.^[89]

A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.^[90] A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.^[91][92] Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.^[93]

Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses
Overview Organizational structure Governing Body Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society Corporations History Bible Student movement Leadership dispute Splinter groups Doctrinal development Unfulfilled predictions Demographics By country
Beliefs Practices God's name 144,000 Salvation Eschatology Faithful and discreet slave Memorial of Jesus' Death Blood Discipline Hymns Literature The Watchtower Awake! New World Translation Bibliography Places Kingdom Hall Gilead School
People Watch Tower presidents W. H. Conley C. T. Russell J. F. Rutherford N. H. Knorr F. W. Franz M. G. Henschel D. A. Adams R. L. Ciranko Formative influences William Miller Henry Grew G. W. Stetson George Storrs N. H. Barbour J. N. Darby Notable former members R. V. Franz O. R. Moyle Notable scholars George Chryssides James Penton Zoe Knox
Criticism Handling child sex abuse Unfulfilled predictions
Opposition Persecution in Nazi Germany Supreme Court cases by country
v t e

Jehovah's Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. Various splinter groups arose after Russell's death, particularly with the beginning of the presidency of Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society, in 1931 came to adopt the name Jehovah's Witnesses, under Rutherford's leadership. Some of the splinter groups survive to this day, though few of these have upwards of 1000 adherents (see splinter groups article). Those who did not support Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups which have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a formal name for their religion.

In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group composed mostly of Second Adventists (a group that arose after the Millerite Great Disappointment) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.^[94]

An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked, in part, by Jonas Wendell. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's eschatology. Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.^[95][96] Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874.^[97] They differed from most Second Adventists, teaching that all mankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth. In 1877, Barbour and Russell jointly published the book The Three Worlds detailing their views.^[98] A gathering of the saints to heaven was expected for 1878 and the year 1914 was to mark the end of Gentile control of the city of Jerusalem and the final end of the rule of human governments, marking a forty-year period from 1874.^[99] By 1877, a separation between the Barbour-Russell group and the Advent Christian denomination was apparent.^[100]

In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour after Barbour discounted the worth of what is known as the substitutionary atonement^[101] and he soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The Watchtower).^[102] After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views.^[103] He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.^[104] In 1881 he formed the legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (currently headquartered in New York City).^[105] In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures.^[106] Early editions declared that 1799 marked the beginning of the "time of the end"; Jesus’ second coming occurred invisibly in 1874 as marked by the lengths of the internal passages of the great pyramid of Egypt; the great pyramid at Gizeh is God's Stone Witness and Prophet; Pleiades is the place of the eternal throne of God; and that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.^[107] Various statements assuring the accuracy and authority of their predictions were issued, such as "We see no reason for changing the figures — nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God’s dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."^[108] In contrast, Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises ... We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."^[109] In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in the United Kingdom.

Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament.^[110] On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge" Rutherford) was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.^[111] Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the headquarters staff in Brooklyn.^[112] Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.^[113] The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,^[114] 1920^[115] and 1925.^[116][117]

The Finished Mystery, published in 1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.^[118] Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violating the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison. The charges were later dropped.^[119] Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students both in America and in Europe.^[120]

An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.^[121] The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925^[122] down to 17,380 in 1928,^[123] due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,^[124] and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.^[125] By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.^[126] The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.^[127] The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.^[128]

Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in concentration camps. Their identifying badge was a purple triangle.^[129] In a book on Jehovah's Witnesses under the Nazi regime, Hans Hesse commented, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith"^[130] During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.^[131]

Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.

Nathan Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant Supreme Court victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.^[132] In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag.

Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.^[133] Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary (Aid to Bible Understanding).^[134] The offices of elder and ministerial servant (deacon) were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.^[135] Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency.

During the 1960s^[136] and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.^[137] The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.^[138] From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following the failure of this prediction.^[139] In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.^[140]

In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.^[141] Witnesses no longer teach that the generation of people alive in 1914 will survive until Armageddon,^[142] but are encouraged not to lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment".^[143]

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.8 million members actively involved in preaching.^[144] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.0 million.^[145] However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2% - 3% per annum since 1999.^[146] Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation.^[147] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 17 million attending in 2007.^[148]

Jehovah's Witnesses are led by a Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. The Watchtower Society was incorporated as Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1884. Its directors served as the central Governing Body overseeing their preaching work.^[149] This initial Governing Body was composed of five men and two women.^[150] As of 1971 the Governing Body consisted of the Board of Directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, a body of seven men, and the agenda of the Governing Body was set by the President of the Watch Tower Society, who was also a member. The Governing Body was enlarged by Nathan H. Knorr to include other members of the Society in 1971, and its membership rose to eleven men. In that year, the chairmanship of the group began to rotate annually.^[151] The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from 9 to 17 and now stands at 9.

The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.^[152] Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling. Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both roles are unpaid, but circuit and district overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses consider themselves to be ordained ministers, and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility. They cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work, including missionary work, pioneering, and helping others in the congregation to become more regular in preaching.

The legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses include corporations that represent the religion in legal matters. Most well known is the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 2000, three new non-profit corporations were organized:

Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. coordinates all service (i.e., preaching) activities, including door-to-door preaching, circuit and district conventions, etc.

Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers.

Kingdom Support Services, Inc. controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles.

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines— 'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!', each having tens of millions of monthly copies printed — they also publish many brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and encyclopedias including the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

• The Watchtower has been published continuously since 1879.^[153] This magazine is published in two forms every month. There is a "Public" edition, and a "Study" edition. The purpose of this was to provide 1 monthly watchtower to go along with 1 monthly Awake (see below) for public distribution. The Study edition is used internally with more in depth articles that the common public may not fully understand.

• Awake!, a general interest magazine, has a wider scope than the Watchtower, publishing articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). It is now published monthly and is available in 78 languages.

• New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee, last revised in 1984 in English. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 69 Languages. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.^[154]

Jehovah's Witnesses developed the capability to print Bible literature in multiple languages, and in extremely large volumes, in their own facilities. They currently print all publications at 8 branch offices located around the world.^[155] Since 1 January 2000 all publications are offered free of charge world-wide.

Jehovah's Witnesses maintain an official website, Watchtower.org, as the official Watchtower Society website. Full-length articles of The Watchtower and Awake! magazines, the entire New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, and varying portions of other Witness literature are provided on the site, in addition to content such as interactive Bible puzzles and streaming videos. The site is available in several languages, with a small amount of information presented in 314 languages (in most cases, an online form of the brochure What Does God Require of Us? and other concise material), ^{[needs update]} including videos in five different sign languages for the hearing impaired. Literature in Grade 0 - 2 Braille is available for delivery upon request in twelve languages. The majority of the site's traffic comes from United States, Chile, Brazil, Poland and Peru, in that order.^[156]

Jehovah's Witnesses also maintain other websites that deal with more specific areas of the organization. JW.org is a multimedia site that makes audio versions of The Watchtower and Awake! magazines available for download in English and Spanish. JW-media.org is the "authorized site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah’s Witnesses" and is the primary media portal for video releases, press releases, statistics, legal updates and the like. JehovasZeugen.de is a German-language website that concentrates on the activities of Witnesses in Germany. TemoinsDeJehovah.org is a comparable site in French.

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Throughout their history, their beliefs, doctrines, and practices have met controversy. Political and religious animosity against them has at times led to the point of mob action and government oppression, including being among the groups targeted in the Holocaust.

They have also received widespread criticism from leaders of other faiths. Opposition from fundamentalist and evangelical Christians is particularly notable, and members of some denominations, such as Hank Hanegraaff often characterize Jehovah's Witnesses as a cult.

In the United States, over 60 Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have shaped First Amendment law. Significant cases affirmed rights such as these:

• Not pledging allegiance to the state (West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette)
• Not saluting the flag
• Refusing to serve in the military
• Preaching in public.
• Not celebrating birthdays, Christmas, Halloween, etc.

By 1988, the U.S. Supreme Court had reviewed 71 cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses, two thirds of which were decided in their favor.

In 2002, the Watch Tower Society disputed an ordinance in Stratton, Ohio that required a permit in order to preach from door to door. The Supreme Court decided in favor of the Witnesses.

Witnesses teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a Great Apostasy (2 Thessalonians 2:6-12), from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus most of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity, and are considered heresy by most mainstream Christian scholars. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the Trinity. In contrast with trinitarian doctrine, they believe that Jesus was not God in a human body, but rather that he was God's firstborn (created) Son who existed with God before all other creation. The beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses about hell, the immortality of the soul, the return of Jesus to the earth, and salvation are also controversial.

Some scholars have criticized the New World Translation, the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies (a position the Society claims the opponents have not been able to prove).^[157] The Society publishes an interlinear edition of the New World Translation, the Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, which provides the actual Greek text used in translation (Westcott & Hort), a word-for-word literal English translation underneath, and the New World Translation alongside, enabling the reader to consider such charges directly regarding the New Testament.

A number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society.^[158] Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"^[159] used by God to continually dispense truth.

Raymond Franz, a former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.^[160] However, to Witnesses blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue, it is what it represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood.^[161][162] When the blood has been drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain minute traces of blood.

Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices — including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the congregation — limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom.^[163][164] Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles."^[165] And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad.”^[166] However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God uses to interpret the scriptures, and to instruct members about "what is good and bad."^[167]

Some countries such as Uzbekistan, Belarus, and the city of Moscow have opposed the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village), disputes that have apparently been about appropriate land use have come out of religious bias, according to Jehovah's Witnesses' claims.

• Bloodless surgery
• Bible Student movement
• Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
• Religious rejection of politics
• Restorationism
• Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses
• The Holocaust

• Jehovah's Witnesses Defended by Greg Stafford. The author considers himself one of Jehovah’s Witnesses but has renounced affiliation with the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. This book reviews and thoroughly explores the most common, and/or prevalent, criticisms made about Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. http://elihubooks.com/books/
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement'\ by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978-0415266109. 224 pages.
• Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
• A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4 Selections from Google Books
• What Does the Bible Really Teach? Published by Jehovah's Wittnesses
• Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses#Books Critical of Jehovah's Witnesses

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jehovah's Witnesses.

• Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site
• Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Worldwide Association of Jehovah's Witnesses - Site hosts Watchtower and Awake magazines download in MP3 and M4B audio formats.

• BBC Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses
• Jehovah's Witnesses United — A collection of scholarly information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and the New World Translation.
• 'Knocking' - an independently made documentary about Jehovah's Witnesses. Sample Trailer
• Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources — Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's. The "site is maintained by one of Jehovah's Witnesses who fully supports the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society." Emphasis is on literature not found in the Watchtower Library CD-ROM.
• Theocratese Glossary - Glossary of terms used by Jehovah's Witnesses
• Theocratic Resources.com Purpose - to make available antiquarian material for those interested in the history and development of the Watchtower Society. Of especial interest to collectors of Watchtower memorabilia.
• Interesting Jehovah's Witness Statistics A site providing statistical data.

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