Peradaban Lembah Indus
peradaban Zaman Perunggu yang berada di Asia Selatan
(Dialihkan dari Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus)
Peradaban Indus,[3] 2800 SM–1800 SM, merupakan sebuah peradaban kuno yang hidup sepanjang Sungai Indus yang sekarang merupakan wilayah Pakistan dan India barat.[4] Peradaban ini juga dikenal peradaban yang berpusat di kota Mohenjo Daro dan Harrapa.[5] Keruntuhan peradaban ini ditengarai disebabkan Sungai Saraswati Veda yang mengalami kekeringan pada sekitar akhir 1900 SM akibat tingkat radiasi matahari yang cukup tinggi sehingga memengaruhi curah hujan di sekitar lembah.[6][7] Para arkeolog mengungkapkan peradaban Lembah Indus merupakan peradaban kuno paling luas yang ditemukan setelah situs peradaban Mesopotamia dan Mesir. Pada tahun 1980 peradaban Lembah Indus ditetapkan sebagai situs warisan dunia oleh UNESCO.[8] [1] [9]
![[1]](https://gamelow.netlify.app/host-http-www.archaeologyonline.net/indology/sarasvati-map-crop.jpg){kind=link}
.png) | |
| Jangkauan geografis | Asia Selatan |
|---|---|
| Periode | Zaman Perunggu |
| Tanggal | ca 3300–ca 1700 BCE[1][2] |
| Didahului oleh | Mehrgarh |
| Diikuti oleh | Periode Weda |
Masyarakat
suntingOrang-orang Dravida atau penutur bahasa Proto-Dravida (leluhur dari Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, dan Malayalam) yang diperkirakan merupakan pendiri kota kuno ini sendiri masih menjadi perdebatan dikalangan para arkeolog.[10] Riwayat mereka tak dapat ditelusuri hingga sekarang. Bahasa dan aksara mereka dalam artefak-artefak yang ditemukan di sana masih sedikit yang dapat dipecahkan hingga sekarang.[11] Uniknya di kota tersebut tidak ditemukan bangunan untuk kegiatan religius dan tanda-tanda sistem kasta seperti kuil-kuil dan monumen besar yang megah.[12][13] Hal ini mengakibatkan para peneliti berspekulasi kalau masyarakat Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan peradaban yang hidup bergantung sepenuhnya pada ilmu pengetahuan (sudah meninggalkan praktik keagamaan) dan memiliki filosofi hidup yang tinggi (terlihat dari ketiadaan sistem kasta dalam hierarki sosial).[14] Berdasarkan dari peninggalan yang ditemukan, mereka merupakan salah satu peradaban yang sudah maju dengan adanya bukti timbangan dan ukuran yang sudah memiliki standar, ukiran cap, stempel perangko, tembikar dan telah mengenal teknik peleburan logam seperti tembaga, perunggu, dan timah.[11][15] Disamping itu Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan kota yang sangat berkembang, banyak rumah yang memiliki sumur dan kamar mandi serta sistem saluran air bawah tanah yang kompleks.[4][12][16]
Keruntuhan
suntingKeruntuhan peradaban ini diduga disebabkan oleh perubahan iklim. Perubahan iklim pada masa itu menyebabkan zaman es kecil yang mengakibatkan musim kemarau menjadi lebih kering yang berdampak negatif terhadap pertanian. Hal inilah yang membuat masyarakat peradaban tersebut pindah ke desa-desa kecil di kaki bukit Himalaya. Selain itu pada saat yang sama datang peradaban Indo-Arya dengan membawa peralatan yang lebih canggih.[17] Bangsa Indo-Arya ini ditengarai menyerang masyarakat Lembah Sungai Indus karena di sekitar bekas kota ditemukan sisa kerangka yang seolah-olah menunjukkan bukti kuat adanya penyerbuan.[18] Dugaan lainnya dari keruntuhan peradaban ini adalah disebabkan oleh banjir karena kota ini tampaknya begitu padat penduduk dan banjir telah terjadi berulang kali,[18] namun sayangnya bukti ini dirasa kurang kuat karena tidak seluruh kota hancur oleh banjir.[12] Dugaan lainnya adalah karena perkembangan sosial budaya dari pertanian ke bidang lainnya sehingga kota ini kemudian ditinggalkan.[12]
Lihat pula
suntingReferensi
sunting- ^ "Archeologists confirm Indian civilization is 2000 years older than previously believed, Jason Overdorf, Globalpost, 28 November 2012".
- ^ "Indus Valley 2,000 years older than thought". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2015-09-09. Diakses tanggal 2018-06-13.
- ^ For example, in the titles of the works used to reference this article by Habib (2015), Marshall (ed., 1931 and 1996), Parpola (2015), Possehl (2002), and Sullivan (1964)
- ^ a b "Indus Valley Civilization". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ Welianto, Ari. Welianto, Ari, ed. "Sejarah Peradaban India Kuno". Kompas.com. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-30.
- ^ Marris, Emma. "Two-hundred-year drought doomed Indus Valley Civilization". Nature News (dalam bahasa Inggris). doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14800.
- ^ "Climate change led to collapse of ancient Indus civilization, study finds". ScienceDaily (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ "Indus civilization | History, Location, Map, Art, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ Diarsipkan 2006-05-07 di Wayback Machine.
- ^ Joseph, Tony (2017-12-23). "Who built the Indus Valley civilisation?". The Hindu (dalam bahasa Inggris). ISSN 0971-751X. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ a b M. A., Anthropology; B. Ed., Illinois State University; Twitter, Twitter. "Archaeological Evidence for Indus Civilization Script and Seals". ThoughtCo (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ a b c d "Lost City of Mohenjo Daro Puzzles Archaeologists". Science (dalam bahasa Inggris). 2009-10-09. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ "Early Civilization in the Indus Valley [ushistory.org]". www.ushistory.org. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ Kota kuno Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa, India
- ^ "Indus River Valley civilizations (article)". Khan Academy (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-08-31.
- ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan M (1991). "The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India" (PDF). Journal of World Prehistory. 5 (4): 353.
- ^ "Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus di Himalaya Runtuh, Ini Penyebabnya".
- ^ a b Welianto, Ari. Welianto, Ari, ed. "Peninggalan dan Runtuhnya Peradaban India Kuno". Kompas.com. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-30.
Bibliografi
sunting- Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking.
- Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann.
- Basham, A. L. (1967). The Wonder That Was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. hlm. 11–14.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press
- Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-63-7.
- Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE, Cambridge University Press
- Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1984). Short History of Pakistan (Book 1). University of Karachi.
- Dani, Ahmad Hassan; Mohen, J-P. (eds.) (1996). History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC. New York/Paris: Routledge/UNESCO. ISBN 0-415-09306-6.
- Derenko, Miroslava (2013), "Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians", PLOS ONE, 8 (11): e80673, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080673, PMC 3828245 , PMID 24244704
- Dikshit, K.N. (2013), "Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates" (PDF), Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (9), diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 18 January 2017
- Gallego Romero, Irene; et al. (2011), "Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence", Mol. Biol. Evol., 29: 249–60, doi:10.1093/molbev/msr190, PMID 21836184
- Gangal, Kavita; Sarson, Graeme R.; Shukurov, Anvar (2014), "The Near-Eastern roots of the Neolithic in South Asia", PLOS ONE, 9: e95714, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714, PMC 4012948 , PMID 24806472
- Gupta, S. P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan. ISBN 81-85268-46-0.
- Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995). The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan.
- Habib, Irfan (2002), The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib, Anthem Press
- Heggarty, Paul; Renfrew, Collin (2014), "South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages", dalam Renfrew, Collin; Bahn, Paul, The Cambridge World Prehistory, Cambridge University Press
- Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011). "The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas". Dalam Adluri, Vishwa; Bagchee, Joydeep. When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-19380-2.
- Kathiroli; et al. (2004). "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (1): 141–149.
- Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577940-1.
- Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory. 5 (4): 1–64. doi:10.1007/BF00978474.
- Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly (2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517422-4.
- Kivisild; et al. (1999), "Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages" (PDF), Curr. Biol., 9: 1331–1334, doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3, PMID 10574762, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2005-10-30
- Kumar, Dhavendra (2004), Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent, Springer, ISBN 1-4020-1215-2, diakses tanggal 2008-11-25
- Lal, B. B. (1998). India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. ISBN 81-7305-129-1.
- Lal, B. B. (1997). The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline).
- Lal, B. B. (2002). The Sarasvati flows on.
- Lazaridis, Iosif; et al. (2016). "Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East". Nature. 536 (7617): 419–424. Bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L. bioRxiv 059311 . doi:10.1038/nature19310. PMC 5003663 . PMID 27459054.
- Mani, B.R. (2008), "Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan : A Linkage" (PDF), Pragdhara, 18: 229–247, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2017-01-18, diakses tanggal 2018-06-13
- Marshall, John (1931). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5.
- Manuel, Mark (2010), "Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley", dalam Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham Battaramulla, R.A.E., Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume, Neptune
- Mascarenhas, Desmond D.; Raina, Anupuma; Aston, Christopher E.; Sanghera, Dharambir K. (2015), "Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage", BioMed Research International, 2015: 1–16, doi:10.1155/2015/651415
- Masson, Charles (1842). "Chapter 2: Haripah". Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence in those countries from 1826 to 1838. London: Richard Bentley. hlm. 472. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 30 September 2007.
- McIntosh, Jane (2001). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3532-9.
- McIntosh, Jane (2008). "Religion and ideology". The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
- Mirabal, Sheyla; Regueiro, M; Cadenas, AM; Cavalli-Sforza, LL; Underhill, PA; Verbenko, DA; Limborska, SA; Herrera, RJ; et al. (2009). "Y-Chromosome distribution within the geo-linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia". European Journal of Human Genetics. 17 (10): 1260–1273. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.6. PMC 2986641 . PMID 19259129.
- Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture. Ferozesons. ISBN 969-0-01350-5.
- Mukherjee, Namita; Nebel, Almut; Oppenheim, Ariella; Majumder, Partha P. (2001), "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India" (PDF), Journal of Genetics, Springer India, 80 (3): 125–35, doi:10.1007/BF02717908, PMID 11988631, diakses tanggal 2008-11-25[pranala nonaktif permanen]
- Mukherjee, Ashoke (2001b), "Rigvedic Sarasvati: Myth and Reality", Breakthrough, Vol.9, No.1, January 2001
- Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018), The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia, bioRxiv 292581
- Lahiri, Nayanjot (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Permanent Black. ISBN 81-7530-034-5.
- Palanichamy, Malliya Gounder (2015), "West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system", Human Genetics, 134 (6): 637–647, doi:10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4, PMID 25832481
- Pamjav, Horolma; Fehér, Tibor; Németh, Endre; Pádár, Zsolt (2012), "Brief communication: new Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149 (4): 611–615, doi:10.1002/ajpa.22167, PMID 23115110
- Parpola, Asko (19 May 2005). "Study of the Indus Script" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 6 March 2006. (50th ICES Tokyo Session)
- Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation, Oxford University Press
- Pittman, Holly (1984). Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-365-7.
- Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9.
- Poznik (2016), "Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences", Nature Genetics, 48: 593–599, doi:10.1038/ng.3559, PMC 4884158 , PMID 27111036
- Sarkar, Anindya (2016), "Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization", Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/srep26555
- Semino, O; Passarino G, Oefner PJ (2000), "The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective", Science, 290: 1155–1159, doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1155, PMID 11073453
- Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M; et al. (2005). "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". American Journal of Human Genetics. 78 (2): 202–21. doi:10.1086/499411. PMC 1380230 . PMID 16400607..
- Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-85179-74-3.
- Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology". Dalam George Erdosy (ed.). Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
- Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". Dalam Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. ISBN 1-888789-04-2.
- Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". Dalam R. W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (edisi ke-Second). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Singh, Sakshi (2016), "Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup", Scientific Reports, 6: 19157, doi:10.1038/srep19157, PMC 4709632 , PMID 26754573
- Srinivasan, Doris (1975). "The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment". Archives of Asian Art. 29: 47–58. JSTOR 20062578.
- Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. Brill. ISBN 978-9004107588.
- Sullivan, Herbert P. (1964). "A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization". History of Religions. 4 (1): 115–125. doi:10.1086/462498. JSTOR 1061875.
- Thapar, Romila (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
- Underhill, Peter A; Myres, Natalie M; Rootsi, Siiri; Metspalu, Mait; Zhivotovsky, Lev A; King, Roy J; Lin, Alice A; Chow, Cheryl-Emiliane T; et al. (2009). "Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a". European Journal of Human Genetics. 18 (4): 479–84. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.194. PMC 2987245 . PMID 19888303.
- Underhill, Peter A. (2014), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a" (PDF), European Journal of Human Genetics, 23 (1): 124–131, doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50, ISSN 1018-4813, PMC 4266736 , PMID 24667786, diakses tanggal 15 June 2016
- Underhill, Peter A.; et al. (2015), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a" (PDF), European Journal of Human Genetics, 23: 124–131, doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50, PMC 4266736 , PMID 24667786
- Wells, R.S. (2001), "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98 (18): 10244–10249, Bibcode:2001PNAS...9810244W, doi:10.1073/pnas.171305098, PMC 56946 , PMID 11526236
- Willey; Phillips (1958), Method and Theory in American Archaeology
- Witzel, Michael (February 2000). "The Languages of Harappa" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies.
- Wright, Rita P. (2009), The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-57219-4, diakses tanggal 29 September 2013
Pustaka tambahan
sunting- Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE, Cambridge University Press
Pranala luar
suntingWikivoyage memiliki panduan wisata Mohenjo-daro.
Wikimedia Commons memiliki media mengenai Indus Valley Civilization.
- An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)
- Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India Diarsipkan 2011-06-29 di Wayback Machine.
- Photos and descriptions of archaeological excavations — 90 page intro to Indus (Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com)
- The Indus Script (harappa.com)
- http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf 'Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis' by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)
- Horseplay in Harappa Diarsipkan 2005-06-20 di Wayback Machine. article debunking claims of decipherment of the "Indus script"
- Prehistoric dentistry evidence found in Indus - BBC News
- Indus artefacts
- Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization Diarsipkan 2007-01-01 di Wayback Machine.