View source for Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
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{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts
| partof            = the [[Kashmir conflict|Kashmir dispute]] and the [[Cold War]]
| image             = Pakistan India Locator 2.png
| caption           = Location of India (orange) and Pakistan (green)
| date              = 22 October 1947 – present<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=22|year1=1947}})
| place             = [[Line of Control]], [[India–Pakistan border]]
| status            = [[List of ongoing military conflicts|Ongoing]]
{{collapsible list
 | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 | title = ''Direct engagements:''
|'''Wars:'''
* [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948|First Kashmir War]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Second Kashmir War]]
* [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]
* [[Siachen conflict|Siachen conflict (1984–2003)]]
* [[Kargil War]]
'''Cross-border skirmishes and military standoffs:'''
* 1958 East Pakistan-India border clashes
* [[2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff]]
* [[2008 Indo-Pakistani standoff|2008 India–Pakistan standoff]]
* [[2011 India–Pakistan border skirmish]]es
* [[2013 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]
* [[2014–2015 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]
* [[2016 Indian Line of Control strike]]
* [[2016–2018 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]
* [[2019 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]
* [[2020–2021 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]
* [[2023 India-Pakistan border skirmishes]]
}}
| combatant1        = {{flag|India}}
| combatant2        = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| campaignbox       = {{Indo-Pakistani Wars}}
| image_size        = 300px
}}
Since the [[Partition of India|Partition of British India]] in 1947 and subsequent creation of the [[dominion]]s of [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]], the two countries have been involved in a number of wars, conflicts, and military standoffs. A long-running [[Kashmir conflict|dispute over Kashmir]] and [[State-sponsored terrorism|cross-border terrorism]] have been the predominant cause of conflict between the two states, with the exception of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], which occurred as a direct result of hostilities stemming from the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in erstwhile [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]).

== Background ==
{{further|Indian independence movement|Pakistan Movement}}
[[File:Partition of India.PNG|thumb|Four nations ([[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Dominion of Ceylon|Ceylon (Sri Lanka)]] and [[Union of Burma|Burma]]) that gained independence in 1947 and 1948]]
The [[Partition of India]] came in 1947 with the sudden grant of independence.<ref name="Khan, 2007">{{cite book|last=Khan|first=Yasmin|title=The great Partition: the making of India and Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9WdQp2pwOYC|access-date=30 October 2011|year=2007|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-12078-3|page=13}}</ref> It was the intention of those who wished for a Muslim state to have a clean partition between independent and equal "Pakistan" and "Hindustan" once independence came.<ref name="Ambedkar, 1946">* {{citation |last=Ambedkar |first=Bhimrao Ramji |title=Pakistan or Partition of India |year=1945 |publisher=[[Thacker and company]] |location=[[Bombay]] |orig-year=first published as ''Thoughts on Pakistan'', 1940 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.50130 |page=5}}</ref>

Nearly one third of the Muslim population of India remained in the new India.<ref name="Dixit, 2002">{{cite book |title=India-Pakistan in War & Peace |last=Dixit |first=Jyotindra Nath |year=2002 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-30472-6 |page=13 }}</ref><ref>P. 4{{cite web|title = Cause for acceptance of refugees into European Nations|url = http://kharabanda.in/3.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170418162131/http://kharabanda.in/3.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-date = 18 April 2017|work = Dhruv Kharabanda|access-date = 9 October 2019}}</ref><ref>Population of independent Pakistan (East + West) was 60 million. Population of Muslims in Indian dominion was 30 million or 9% of total population.</ref>

Inter-communal violence between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims resulted in between 200,000 and 2 million casualties leaving 14 million people displaced.<ref name="Khan, 2007" />{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=2}}{{efn|"The death toll remains disputed with figures ranging from 200,000 to 2 million."{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=2}}}}<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGiSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|title=Population Redistribution and Development in South Asia|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2012|isbn=978-9400953093|page=6|access-date=9 October 2019|archive-date=16 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116090238/https://books.google.com/books?id=tGiSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Princely state]]s in India were provided with an [[Instrument of Accession]] to accede to either India or Pakistan.<ref>{{citation |publisher=Wikisource |title=White Paper on Indian States (1950)/Part 4/Instrument of Accession |chapter=Instrument of Accession |chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/White_Paper_on_Indian_States_(1950)/Part_4/Instrument_of_Accession |access-date=9 October 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308201243/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/White_Paper_on_Indian_States_(1950)/Part_4/Instrument_of_Accession |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Wars==
[[File:Indian soldiers fighting in 1947 war.jpg|thumb|Indian soldiers fighting in the 1947 war]]

===Indo-Pakistani War of 1947===
{{main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948}}

The war, also called the '''First Kashmir War''', started in October 1947 when Pakistan feared that the [[Maharaja]] of the [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Kashmir and Jammu]] would accede to India. Following partition, [[princely states]] were left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent. Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the princely states, had a majority Muslim population and significant fraction of Hindu population, all ruled by the Hindu [[Maharaja]] [[Hari Singh]]. Tribal Islamic forces with support from the army of Pakistan attacked and occupied parts of the princely state forcing the Maharaja to sign the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|Instrument of Accession]] of the princely state to the [[Dominion of India]] to receive Indian military aid. The UN Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47|Resolution 47]] on 22 April 1948. The fronts solidified gradually along what came to be known as the [[Line of Control]]. A formal cease-fire was declared at 23:59 on the night of 1 January 1949.<ref name="Offl_Hist_1947">{{cite book |title=History of Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948 |last1=Prasad|first1=S.N.|last2=Dharm Pal |year=1987 |publisher=History Department, Ministry of Defence, Government of India. (printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited) |location=New Delhi |page=418 }}</ref>{{rp|379}} India gained control of about two-thirds of the state ([[Kashmir Valley]], [[Jammu]] and [[Ladakh]]) whereas Pakistan gained roughly a third of {{nowrap|Kashmir ([[Azad Kashmir]], and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]).}} The Pakistan controlled areas are collectively referred to as Pakistan administered Kashmir.<ref name="South Asia in World Politics">{{cite book
|last1=Hagerty
|first1=Devin
|title=South Asia in World Politics
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ6PZ7g3Yw0C&q=indo+Pakistani+war+of+1947+india+gained+two+third+Kashmir&pg=PA460
|access-date=2016-03-06
|year=2005
|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]
|isbn=9780742525870
|page=161
|archive-date=6 February 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206113817/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ6PZ7g3Yw0C&q=indo+Pakistani+war+of+1947+india+gained+two+third+Kashmir&pg=PA460
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia">{{cite book
|title=The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ6PZ7g3Yw0C&q=indo+Pakistani+war+of+1947+india+gained+two+third+Kashmir&pg=PA460
|access-date=2016-03-06
|year=2004
|publisher=Kingfisher
|isbn=9780753457849
|page=460
|archive-date=6 February 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206113817/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ6PZ7g3Yw0C&q=indo+Pakistani+war+of+1947+india+gained+two+third+Kashmir&pg=PA460
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="New Zealand Defence Quarterly">{{cite book
|title=New Zealand Defence Quarterly, Issues 24-29
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBcqAQAAIAAJ&q=invasion+1965
|access-date=2016-03-06
|year=1999
|publisher=New Zealand. Ministry of Defence
|archive-date=6 February 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206113818/https://books.google.com/books?id=fBcqAQAAIAAJ&q=invasion+1965
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="Perspectives on Kashmir: the roots of conflict in South Asia">{{cite book
|last1=Thomas
|first1=Raju
|title=Perspectives on Kashmir: the roots of conflict in South Asia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrPtAAAAMAAJ&q=India+held+two-third+of+Jammu+and+Kashmir+and+Pakistan+held+other+one+third
|access-date=2016-03-06
|year=1992
|publisher=Westview Press
|isbn=9780813383439
|page=25
|archive-date=6 February 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206113818/https://books.google.com/books?id=xrPtAAAAMAAJ&q=India+held+two-third+of+Jammu+and+Kashmir+and+Pakistan+held+other+one+third
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

===Indo-Pakistani War of 1965===
{{main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1965}}
[[File:Pakistani Army Position, 1965 War Footage 2.png|thumb|Pakistani Army Position, MG1A3 AA, 1965 War]]

This war started following Pakistan's [[Operation Gibraltar]], which was designed to infiltrate forces into [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on [[West Pakistan]]. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II.{{sfn|David R. Higgins|2016}}{{sfn|Rachna Bisht|2015}} The hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and USA and the subsequent issuance of the [[Tashkent Declaration]].<ref name="Lyon2008">{{cite book|last=Lyon|first=Peter|title=Conflict between India and Pakistan: an encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLwOck15eboC&pg=PR11|access-date=30 October 2011|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-712-2|page=82|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207172511/https://books.google.com/books?id=vLwOck15eboC&pg=PR11|url-status=live}}</ref> India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dijink |first1=Gertjan |title=National Identity and Geopolitical Visions: Maps of Pride and Pain |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134771295 |quote=The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.}}</ref><ref name="USLib">{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0152)|title=Pakistan :: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]], United States of America|date=April 1994|access-date=2 October 2010|archive-date=7 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107081241/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+pk0152%29|url-status=live}} Quote: Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan.</ref><ref name="Hagerty">{{cite book|last = Hagerty|first = Devin|title = South Asia in world politics|year = 2005|publisher = Rowman & Littlefield, 2005|page = 26|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ln3qChyrmIQC|isbn = 0-7425-2587-2|access-date = 15 November 2015|archive-date = 5 February 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230205202531/https://books.google.com/books?id=ln3qChyrmIQC|url-status = live}} Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened on 22 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley|title=India|year=2005|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0520246969|page=235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmkL1tp2Nl4C|edition=3rd ed. with a new preface.|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=30 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330072125/https://books.google.com/books?id=HmkL1tp2Nl4C|url-status=live}} Quote: India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.</ref>

===Indo-Pakistani War of 1971===
{{main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Bangladesh Liberation War}}
[[File:1971 Instrument of Surrender.jpg|thumb|[[Lieutenant-General]] [[A. A. K. Niazi]], the commander of [[Pakistan Eastern Command]], signing the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|instrument of surrender]] in [[Dhaka]] on 16 Dec 1971, in the presence of India's [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora]].]]
[[File:Ussdiablo.jpg|thumb|Pakistan's {{ship|PNS|Ghazi}}, the Pakistani submarine which sank during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War under mysterious circumstances<ref>{{cite book|last=Till|first=Geoffrey |title=Seapower: a guide for the twenty-first century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcejlMRYNAAC&q=PNS+Ghazi&pg=PA179|access-date=2010-05-28|year=2004|publisher=Frank Cass Publishers|location=Great Britain|isbn=0-7146-8436-8|page=179}}</ref> off the [[Visakhapatnam]] coast.]]
This war was unique in the way that it did not involve the issue of Kashmir, but was rather precipitated by the crisis created by the political battle brewing in erstwhile [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]) between [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], Leader of [[East Pakistan]], and [[Yahya Khan]] and [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], leaders of West Pakistan. This would culminate in the declaration of Independence of [[Bangladesh]] from the state system of Pakistan. Following [[Operation Searchlight]] and the [[1971 Bangladesh atrocities]], about 10 million Bengalis in East Pakistan took refuge in neighbouring India.<ref>{{cite book
 |last = Christophe Jaffrelot, Gillian Beaumont
 |title = A History of Pakistan and Its Origins
 |date = 28 September 2004
 |publisher = Anthem Press, 2004
 |isbn = 1-84331-149-6 }}</ref>
India intervened in the ongoing [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Bangladesh liberation movement]].<ref name="LATimes, 2002">{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-mar-30-me-passings30.1-story.html |title=Gen. Tikka Khan, 87; 'Butcher of Bengal' Led Pakistani Army |author=Times Staff and Wire Reports |date=30 March 2002 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=19 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619021031/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-mar-30-me-passings30.1-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="The Daily Star, 2011">{{cite web |author=Ahsan |first=Syed Badrul |author-link=Syed Badrul Ahsan |date=15 July 2011 |title=A Lamp Glows for Indira Gandhi |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2011/07/03/musing.htm |access-date=30 October 2011 |work=The Daily Star |volume=10 |issue=27 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224145043/https://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2011/07/03/musing.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> After a large scale [[Operation Chengiz Khan|pre-emptive strike]] by Pakistan, full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced.

Pakistan attacked at several places along India's western border with Pakistan, but the [[Indian Army]] successfully held their positions. The Indian Army quickly responded to the Pakistan Army's movements in the west and made some initial gains, including capturing around {{convert|5795|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=off}}<ref name="Shuja Nawaz 2008">{{cite book |last=Nawaz |first=Shuja |title=Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547697-2 |page=329}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCaAQCnO3QQC&pg=PA81|title=Benazir, a Profile&nbsp;– M. G. Chitkara|page=81|isbn=9788170247524|last1=Chitkara|first1=M. G|year=1996|publisher=APH }}</ref><ref name="https">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek00fuXVz1wC&pg=PA117|title=Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War&nbsp;– Victoria Schofield|date=2003|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-86064-898-4|page=117|last1=Schofield|first1=Victoria}}</ref> of Pakistani territory (land gained by India in Pakistani Kashmir, [[Punjab, Pakistan|Pakistani Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] sectors but gifted it back to Pakistan in the [[Simla Agreement]] of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill). Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces in [[East Pakistan]] [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|surrendered]] to the joint command of Indian and Bangladeshi forces following which the [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]] was created.<ref name="Leonard, 2006">{{cite book |last = Leonard |first = Thomas |title = Encyclopedia of the developing world |publisher = Taylor & Francis|year= 2006 |isbn = 978-0-415-97662-6}}</ref> The war   resulted in the surrender of more than 90,000 Pakistani Army troops.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC NEWS {{!}} India Pakistan {{!}} Timeline |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1971.stm |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=news.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011102832/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1971.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In the words of one Pakistani author, "Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force and a third of its army".<ref>{{cite book|last=Ali|first=Tariq|title=Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=moJPPgAACAAJ&q=Can+Pakistan+Survive%3F|publisher=Verso Books|year=1997|isbn=0-86091-949-8|access-date=26 October 2020|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829162443/https://books.google.com/books?id=moJPPgAACAAJ&q=Can+Pakistan+Survive%3F|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Indo-Pakistani War of 1999===

{{main|Kargil War}}
Commonly known as the Kargil War, this conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. During early 1999, Pakistani troops infiltrated across the [[Line of Control]] (LoC) and occupied Indian territory mostly in the [[Kargil district]]. India responded by launching a major military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani infiltrators.<ref name=Stanley>{{cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=India and Pakistan: Continued Conflict or Cooperation? |url=https://archive.org/details/indiapakistancon0000wolp |url-access=registration |publisher=University of California Press |date=14 August 2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiapakistancon0000wolp/page/73 73] |chapter=Recent Attempts to Resolve the Conflict|isbn=9780520271401}}</ref> Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v23/n08/ali_01_.html|title=Bitter Chill of Winter|first=Tariq|last=Ali|author-link=Tariq Ali|newspaper=[[London Review of Books]]=|access-date=2009-05-20|archive-date=1 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001175541/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v23/n08/ali_01_.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Colonel Ravi Nanda | title=Kargil: A Wake Up Call | publisher=Vedams Books | year=1999 | isbn=81-7095-074-0}} [https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no14953.htm Online summary of the Book] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055430/https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no14953.htm |date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> According to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control.<ref name="VP Malik">[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_26-7-2002_pg4_12 Kargil: where defence met diplomacy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216074135/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_26-7-2002_pg4_12 |date=16 December 2012 }} - India's then [[Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army|Chief of Army Staff]] VP Malik, expressing his views on Operation Vijay. Hosted on ''[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]]''; [http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjir/3.1.06_kapur-narang.html The Fate of Kashmir By Vikas Kapur and Vipin Narang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118203713/http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjir/3.1.06_kapur-narang.html |date=18 January 2012 }} Stanford Journal of International Relations; [http://www.ipcs.org/ipcs/displayReview.jsp?kValue=102 Book review of "The Indian Army: A Brief History by Maj Gen Ian Cardozo"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108040104/http://www.ipcs.org/ipcs/displayReview.jsp?kValue=102 |date=8 January 2009 }} - Hosted on IPCS</ref>
Fearing large-scale escalation in military conflict, the international community, led by the [[United States]], increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to withdraw forces from remaining Indian territory.<ref name=Stanley/><ref name=Dettman>{{cite book |last=R. Dettman |first=Paul |title=India Changes Course: Golden Jubilee to Millennium |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2001 |pages=119–120 |chapter=Kargil War Operations|isbn=9780275973087}}</ref> 
Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile [[Economy of Pakistan|Pakistani economy]] was weakened further.<ref name="Samina Ahmed">[http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1209/diplomatic_fiasco.html Samina Ahmed. "Diplomatic Fiasco: Pakistan's Failure on the Diplomatic Front Nullifies its Gains on the Battlefield"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804180723/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1209/diplomatic_fiasco.html |date=4 August 2011 }} (Belfer Center for International Affairs, [[Harvard Kennedy School]])</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/10/13/reacts/print.html|title=Coup d'itat: Pakistan gets a new sheriff|author=Daryl Lindsey and Alicia Montgomery|work=salon.com|access-date=19 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220041521/http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/10/13/reacts/print.html|archive-date=20 December 2009}}</ref> The morale of Pakistani forces after the withdrawal declined as many units of the [[Northern Light Infantry]] suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Summary">{{cite web|url=http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/war_in_kargil.pdf|title=War in Kargil - The CCC's summary on the war|access-date=2009-05-20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040221091712/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/war_in_kargil.pdf|archive-date=21 February 2004}}</ref><ref>[http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1002/friend_for_all_seasons.html Samina Ahmed. "A Friend for all Seasons."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114856/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1002/friend_for_all_seasons.html |date=4 March 2016 }} (Belfer Center for International Affairs, [[Harvard Kennedy School]])</ref> The government refused to accept the dead bodies of many officers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/1999/jul/11karg1.htm|title=Rediff on the NeT: Pakistan refuses to take even officers' bodies|work=rediff.com|access-date=19 June 2015|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224181953/https://www.rediff.com/news/1999/jul/11karg1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.indianembassy.org/pic/PR_1999/July_1999/PR_July_15_1999.html "press release issued in New Delhi regarding bodies of two Pakistan Army Officers"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615050107/http://www.indianembassy.org/pic/PR_1999/July_1999/PR_July_15_1999.html |date=15 June 2010 }}</ref> an issue that provoked outrage and protests in the Northern Areas.<ref>Second-Class Citizens by M. Ilyas Khan, [[The Herald (Pakistan)]], July 2000. [http://www.warbirds.in/downloads/HeraldKargil.pdf Online scanned version of the article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181806/http://www.warbirds.in/downloads/HeraldKargil.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110503214522/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2006092505001100.htm&date=2006%2F09%2F25%2F&prd=th& Musharraf and the truth about Kargil]}} - [[The Hindu]] 25 September 2006</ref> Pakistan initially did not acknowledge many of its casualties, but [[Nawaz Sharif]] later said that over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed in the operation and that Pakistan had lost the conflict.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://hindu.com/2003/08/17/stories/2003081702900800.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111034601/http://hindu.com/2003/08/17/stories/2003081702900800.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2012-11-11|title=Over 4000 soldier's killed in Kargil: Sharif|work=[[The Hindu]]| access-date=2009-05-20}}</ref><ref name=Kapur>{{cite book|last=Kapur|first=S. Paul|title=Dangerous Deterrent: Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and Conflict in South Asia|year=2007|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0804755498|edition=23rd|page=227}}</ref> By the end of July 1999, organized hostilities in the Kargil district had ceased.<ref name=Dettman/>
The war was a major military defeat for the Pakistani Army.<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=Myra |title=Defeat is an Orphan: How Pakistan Lost the Great South Asian War |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-84904-858-3 |pages=27, 53, 64, 66 |quote=p. 27: It was not so much that India won the Great South Asian War but that Pakistan lost it.{{pb}}p. 53: The story of the Kargil War—Pakistan's biggest defeat by India since 1971 —is one that goes to the heart of why it lost the Great South Asian War.{{pb}}p. 64: Afterwards, Musharraf and his supporters would claim that Pakistan won the war militarily and lost it diplomatically. In reality, the military and diplomatic tides turned against Pakistan in tandem.{{pb}}p. 66: For all its bravado, Pakistan had failed to secure even one inch of land.{{pb}} Less than a year after declaring itself a nuclear-armed power, Pakistan had been humiliated diplomatically and militarily.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Lavoy |editor1-first=Peter René |title=Asymmetric Warfare in South Asia: The Causes and Consequences of the Kargil Conflict |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76721-7 |page=180 |quote=The false optimism of the architects of the Kargil intrusion, colored by the illusion of a cheap victory, was not only the main driver of the operation, and hence the crisis, it also was the cause of Pakistan's most damaging military defeat since the loss of East Pakistan in December 1971.}}</ref>

== Other armed engagements ==
Apart from the aforementioned wars, there have been skirmishes between the two nations from time to time. Some have bordered on all-out war, while others were limited in scope. The countries were expected to fight each other in 1955 after warlike posturing on both sides, but full-scale war did not break out.<ref name="Lyon2008" />

=== Standing armed conflicts ===

*'''[[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]:''' An insurgency in Kashmir has been a cause for heightened tensions. India has also [[Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism|accused]] Pakistan-backed militant groups of executing [[List of terrorist incidents in India|several terrorist attacks across India]].
* '''[[Siachen conflict]]:''' In 1984, India launched [[Operation Meghdoot]] capturing all of the [[Siachen Glacier]]. [[Siachen conflict|Further clashes]] erupted in the glacial area in 1985, 1987 and 1995 as Pakistan sought, without success, to oust India from its stronghold.<ref name="Lyon2008" /><ref name="Wirsing1998">{{cite book|last=Wirsing|first=Robert|title=India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir dispute: on regional conflict and its resolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3z8sNZTVv5gC&pg=PA77|access-date=31 October 2011|date=15 February 1998|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-17562-7|page=77}}</ref>

====As proxies====
*'''[[Insurgency in Balochistan]] (1948–present):''' An insurgency in Balochistan province of Pakistan has also caused tensions recently. Pakistan has accused India of causing the insurgency with the help of ousted Baloch leaders, militant groups and terrorist organizations like the [[Balochistan Liberation Army]]. According to Pakistani officials these militants are trained in neighboring Afghanistan. In 2016, Pakistan alleged that an Indian spy [[Kulbhushan Jadhav]] was arrested by Pakistani forces during a counter-intelligence operation in Balochistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/286526/indias-renewed-strategy-of-destabilising-balochistan/|title=India's renewed strategy of destabilising Balochistan|date=2018-08-20|website=Daily Times|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-31|archive-date=1 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201065253/https://dailytimes.com.pk/286526/indias-renewed-strategy-of-destabilising-balochistan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/341558-indian-campaigning-on-balochistan-continues|title=Indian campaigning on Balochistan continues|website=www.thenews.com.pk|language=en|access-date=2019-01-31|archive-date=1 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013437/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/341558-indian-campaigning-on-balochistan-continues|url-status=live}}</ref>
*'''[[Afghan conflict]] (1978–present):''' India and Pakistan had long been supporting opposing sides during the wars of Afghanistan,<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-takeover-threatens-to-raise-india-pakistan-tensions-11630502420|title = Taliban Takeover Threatens to Raise India-Pakistan Tensions|newspaper = Wall Street Journal|date = September 2021|last1 = Roy|first1 = Rajesh|access-date = 14 December 2021|archive-date = 14 December 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214210212/https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-takeover-threatens-to-raise-india-pakistan-tensions-11630502420|url-status = live}}</ref> including during the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and the civil wars from 1989 to 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://jia.sipa.columbia.edu/india-pakistan-rivalry-afghanistan|title = India-Pakistan Rivalry in Afghanistan|date = 25 March 2010|access-date = 14 December 2021|archive-date = 14 December 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214180048/https://jia.sipa.columbia.edu/india-pakistan-rivalry-afghanistan|url-status = live}}</ref> In 2006, Pakistan has been accused by India for its involvement in terrorism in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/18/world/asia/18cnd-afghan.html|title=Coalition Vows to Regain Afghan Town Seized by Taliban|date=18 July 2006|website=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=14 December 2021|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220085755/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/18/world/asia/18cnd-afghan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, Pakistan accused India of trying to derail peace negotiations to end the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/india-pakistan-tug-of-warjeopardizesafghan-peace-process/a-53482558 |title=India-Pakistan tug-of-war jeopardizes Afghan peace process &#124; Asia &#124; An in-depth look at news from across the continent |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=2020-05-18 |accessdate=2022-02-17 |archive-date=18 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218142331/https://www.dw.com/en/india-pakistan-tug-of-warjeopardizesafghan-peace-process/a-53482558 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Past skirmishes and standoffs ===
*'''1958 East Pakistan-India border clashes:''' were armed skirmishes between [[East Pakistan]] and [[India]] in August 1958. The clashes took place between troops of the [[Border Guard Bangladesh|East Pakistan Rifles]] (EPR) and the [[Indian Army]] in the village of Lakshmipur, located in [[Sylhet District]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malik |first=Saleem Akhtar |date=2017-08-07 |title=Remember the hero of Lakshmipur: Major Tufail! |url=https://www.globalvillagespace.com/remember-the-hero-of-lakshmipur-major-tufail/ |access-date=2024-06-02 |website=Global Village Space |language=en-US}}</ref>
*'''[[Operation Desert Hawk]]:''' A military operation executed by the [[Pakistan Armed Forces]] in the then disputed [[Rann of Kutch]] region.
* '''[[Operation Brasstacks]]:''' The largest of its kind in South Asia, it was conducted by India between November 1986 and March 1987. Pakistani mobilisation in response raised tensions and fears that it could lead to another war between the two neighbours.<ref name="Lyon2008" />{{rp|129}}<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/03/06/world/on-india-s-border-a-huge-mock-war.html |title=On India's border, a huge mock war |author=Weisman, Steven R. |date=6 March 1987 |work=The New York Times |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=30 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130024658/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/03/06/world/on-india-s-border-a-huge-mock-war.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff]]:''' The [[Terrorist attack on Indian Parliament (2001)|terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament]] on 13 December 2001, which India blamed on the Pakistan-based terrorist organisations, [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] and [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]], prompted the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff and brought both sides close to war.<ref name="BBC 12 Jan 2002">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1756965.stm |title=Musharraf declares war on extremism |date=12 January 2002 |work=South Asia |publisher=BBC |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225222204/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1756965.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'''[[2008 Indo-Pakistani standoff]]''': a stand-off between the two nations following the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]] which was defused by diplomatic efforts. Following ten coordinated shooting and bombing attacks across [[Mumbai]], India's largest city, [[Aftermath of the 2008 Mumbai attacks|tensions heightened]] between the two countries since India claimed interrogation results alleging<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/americas/accused-in-india-massacre-claims-ties-to-pakistani-secret-service/article1981052/ | work=[[The Globe and Mail]] | location=Toronto | first=Colin | last=Freeze | title=Accused in India massacre claims ties to Pakistani secret service – The Globe and Mail | date=11 April 2011 | access-date=1 September 2017 | archive-date=15 September 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915064608/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/americas/accused-in-india-massacre-claims-ties-to-pakistani-secret-service/article1981052/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/Rana-Headley-implicate-Pak-ISI-in-Mumbai-attack-during-ISI-chiefs-visit-to-US/articleshow/7958954.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811144123/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-12/us/29409412_1_rana-and-headley-isi-tahawwur-hussain-rana | url-status=live | archive-date=11 August 2011 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Rana, Headley implicate Pak, ISI in Mumbai attack during ISI chief's visit to US | date=12 April 2011}}</ref> Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] supporting the attackers while Pakistan denied any official Pakistani involvement in the attacks.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/diplomat-denies-pakistan-role-in-mumbai-attacks-1521700.html | location=London | work=The Independent | date=31 January 2009 | title=Diplomat denies Pakistan role in Mumbai attacks | access-date=1 September 2017 | archive-date=19 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719121047/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/diplomat-denies-pakistan-role-in-mumbai-attacks-1521700.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2008/12/01/pakistan-denies-governmen_n_147395.html |title=Pakistan Denies Government Involvement in Mumbai Attacks |work=Huffington Post |date=1 December 2008 |access-date=16 December 2011 |first=Zarar |last=Khan |archive-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518011455/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/12/01/pakistan-denies-governmen_n_147395.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-jan-07-fg-pakistan-india7-story.html | work=Los Angeles Times | first=Laura | last=King | title=Pakistan denies official involvement in Mumbai attacks | date=7 January 2009 | access-date=11 December 2019 | archive-date=26 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226220509/http://articles.latimes.com/2009/jan/07/world/fg-pakistan-india7 | url-status=live }}</ref> Pakistan placed its air force on alert and moved troops to the Indian border, voicing concerns about proactive movements of the [[Indian Army]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/indian-jets-violating-pakistani-airspace-technical-incursion-says-zardari-fourth-lead_100130857.html |title=Indian jets violating Pakistani airspace 'technical incursion', says Zardari (Fourth Lead) – Thaindian News |publisher=Thaindian.com |date=14 December 2008 |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709090222/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/indian-jets-violating-pakistani-airspace-technical-incursion-says-zardari-fourth-lead_100130857.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Indian government's possible plans to launch attacks on Pakistani soil.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Pak-might-soon-move-troops-from-border-with-India/articleshow/4660681.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054310/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-06-16/india/28165262_1_move-troops-taliban-stronghold-india-and-pakistan | url-status=live | archive-date=11 August 2011 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Pak might soon move troops from border with India | date=16 June 2009}}</ref> The tension defused in a short time and Pakistan moved its troops away from the border.
*'''[[2016–2018 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]''': On 29 September 2016, border skirmishes between India and Pakistan began following reported "[[surgical strike]]s" by India against militant launch pads across the [[Line of Control]] in [[Pakistani-administered Kashmir]] "killing a large number of terrorists".<ref name="DGMO">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-s-surgical-strikes-across-loc-full-statement-by-dgmo-lt-gen-ranbir-singh/story-Q5yrp0gjvxKPGazDzAnVsM.html|title=India's surgical strikes across LoC: Full statement by DGMO Lt Gen Ranbir Singh|work=Hindustan Times|date=29 September 2016|access-date=2 October 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002024056/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-s-surgical-strikes-across-loc-full-statement-by-dgmo-lt-gen-ranbir-singh/story-Q5yrp0gjvxKPGazDzAnVsM.html|archive-date=2 October 2016}}</ref> Pakistan rejected that a strike took place,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/09/30/asia/kashmir-tensions-pakistan-capture-indian-soldier/index.html|title=Pakistan captures Indian soldier in Kashmir|first=Juliet |last=Perry|work=cnn.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001075544/http://www.cnn.com/2016/09/30/asia/kashmir-tensions-pakistan-capture-indian-soldier/index.html|archive-date=1 October 2016}}</ref> stating that Indian troops had not crossed the Line of Control but had only skirmished with Pakistani troops at the border, resulting in the deaths of two Pakistani soldiers and the wounding of nine.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-india-kashmir-idUSKCN11Z0IJ|first1=Sanjeev|last1=Miglani|first2=Asad|last2=Hashim|title=India says hits Pakistan-based militants, escalating tensions|work=[[Reuters]]|date=29 September 2016|access-date=5 October 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005140149/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-india-kashmir-idUSKCN11Z0IJ|archive-date=5 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1286881|title=Army rubbishes Indian 'surgical strikes' claim as two Pakistani soldiers killed at LoC|work=Dawn|date=29 September 2016|access-date=30 September 2016|first=Syed Sammer|last=Abbas|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930032051/http://www.dawn.com/news/1286881|archive-date=30 September 2016}}</ref> Pakistan rejected India's reports of any other casualties.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/02/world/asia/kashmir-pakistan-india.html?_r=0|title=In Kashmir, Pakistan Questions India's 'Surgical Strikes' on Militants|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=1 October 2016|access-date=1 October 2016|first=Salman|last=Masood|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005070714/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/02/world/asia/kashmir-pakistan-india.html?_r=0|archive-date=5 October 2016}}</ref> Pakistani sources reported that at least eight Indian soldiers were killed in the exchange, and one was captured.<ref name="Haider2">{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1286910/|title=Pakistan captures one Indian soldier, eight killed at LoC overnight|work=Dawn|first=Abrar|last=Haider|date=29 September 2016|access-date=29 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930032029/http://www.dawn.com/news/1286910|archive-date=30 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/153627-14-Indian-soldiers-killed-in-clashes-with-Pakistan-Army|title=Indian soldiers killed in clashes with Pakistan Army|work=The News|date=29 September 2016|access-date=30 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930033205/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/153627-14-Indian-soldiers-killed-in-clashes-with-Pakistan-Army|archive-date=30 September 2016}}</ref> India confirmed that one of its soldiers was in Pakistani custody, but denied that it was linked to the incident or that any of its soldiers had been killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/army-denies-pak-media-claims-says-soldier-inadvertently-crossed-loc-1468244|title=Indian Army Says Soldier in Pak Custody Was Not Captured During Surgical Strikes|date=30 September 2016|work=NDTV.com|access-date=30 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930035414/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/army-denies-pak-media-claims-says-soldier-inadvertently-crossed-loc-1468244|archive-date=30 September 2016}}</ref> The Indian operation was said to be in retaliation for a [[militant]] [[2016 Uri attack|attack on the Indian army]] at [[Uri, Jammu and Kashmir|Uri]] on 18 September in the Indian-administered state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] that left 19 soldiers dead.<ref name="evacuates">{{cite web|title=India evacuates 10,000 from border with Pakistan amid reprisal fears after Kashmir 'strikes'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/30/india-evacuates-10000-from-border-with-pakistan-amid-reprisal-fe/|website=Daily Telegraph|access-date=30 September 2016|date=30 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001065030/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/30/india-evacuates-10000-from-border-with-pakistan-amid-reprisal-fe/|archive-date=1 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1191648/called-surgical-strike-indian-farce-throws-challenges/|title=So-called surgical strike: Indian farce throws up a few challenges|work=Express Tribune|date=1 October 2016|access-date=2 October 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002135351/http://tribune.com.pk/story/1191648/called-surgical-strike-indian-farce-throws-challenges/|archive-date=2 October 2016}}</ref> In the succeeding days and months, India and Pakistan continued to exchange fire along the border in Kashmir, resulting in dozens of military and civilian casualties on both sides.
*'''[[2019 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]''': On 14 February 2019, [[2019 Pulwama attack|a suicide attack]] on a convoy of India's [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]] resulted in the death of at least 40 troops. Responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Pakistan-based [[Jaish-e-Mohammad]] (JeM).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/37-crpf-jawans-martyred-in-ied-blast-in-jks-pulwama/articleshow/67992189.cms|title=Pulwama terror attack today: 40 CRPF jawans martyred in IED blast in Jammu and Kashmir's Pulwama &#124; India News - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=16 February 2019|access-date=10 June 2020|archive-date=15 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215181837/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/37-crpf-jawans-martyred-in-ied-blast-in-jks-pulwama/articleshow/67992189.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> 12 days later in February 2019, Indian jets crossed the international border to conduct [[2019 Balakot airstrike|air strikes]] on an alleged JeM camp in the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-struck-biggest-training-camp-of-jaish-in-balakot-large-number-of-terrorists-eliminated-governm-1999390|title=India Hits Main Jaish Camp in Balakot, "Non-Military" Strike: Government|publisher=[[NDTV]]|access-date=26 February 2019|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227053325/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-struck-biggest-training-camp-of-jaish-in-balakot-large-number-of-terrorists-eliminated-governm-1999390|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan army confirms Indian jets dropped 'four bombs' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/pakistan-army-confirms-indian-jets-dropped-four-bombs/articleshow/68171844.cms |work=The Times of India |agency=Press Trust of India |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-date=26 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226221047/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/pakistan-army-confirms-indian-jets-dropped-four-bombs/articleshow/68171844.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> India claimed that it killed a very large number of militants belonging to [[Jaish-e-Mohammed|JeM]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/31091/Statement_by_Foreign_Secretary_on_26_February_2019_on_the_Strike_on_JeM_training_camp_at_Balakot|title=Statement by Foreign Secretary on 26 February 2019 on the Strike on JeM training camp at Balakot|website=mea.gov.in|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227221920/https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl%2F31091%2FStatement_by_Foreign_Secretary_on_26_February_2019_on_the_AirStrike_on_JeM_training_camp_at_Balakot|url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan rejected to have suffered any losses.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47370608|title=Viewpoint: India strikes in Pakistan a major escalation|date=2019-02-26|access-date=2019-02-26|language=en-GB|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513150005/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47370608|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the sources and satellite imagery analysis, Indian air force appears to caused minimal damage to the buildings concerned,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/israel-india-pakistan-conflict-balakot-arms-trade-jaish-e-mohammed-a8800076.html | title=Israel is playing a big role in India's escalating conflict with Pakistan | date=28 February 2019 | first=Robert | last=Fisk | newspaper=The Independent | access-date=12 October 2019 | archive-date=1 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001162948/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/israel-india-pakistan-conflict-balakot-arms-trade-jaish-e-mohammed-a8800076.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/opinion/sunday/kashmir-india-pakistan.html|title=Opinion &#124; The Young Suicide Bomber Who Brought India and Pakistan to the Brink of War|first=Basharat|last=Peer|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2 March 2019|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203194325/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/opinion/sunday/kashmir-india-pakistan.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/world/asia/india-pakistan-kashmir-jets.html|title=Indian Jets Strike in Pakistan in Revenge for Kashmir Attack|first1=Maria|last1=Abi-Habib|first2=Austin|last2=Ramzy|newspaper=The New York Times|date=25 February 2019|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227012148/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/world/asia/india-pakistan-kashmir-jets.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/world/asia/kashmir-shelling-india-pakistan.html|title=Deadly Shelling Erupts in Kashmir Between India and Pakistan After Pilot Is Freed|first1=Jeffrey|last1=Gettleman|first2=Hari|last2=Kumar|first3=Sameer|last3=Yasir|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2 March 2019|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302195309/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/world/asia/kashmir-shelling-india-pakistan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> however, Pakistan had to close the site for one and a half month or 43 days before opened to media.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/a-month-after-indian-air-strike-pakistan-takes-journalists-to-balakot-site/articleshow/68636173.cms|title=A month after Indian air strike, Pakistan takes journalists to Balakot site|first=Shaurya Karanbir|last=Gurung|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=29 March 2019|access-date=20 July 2021|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604173650/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/a-month-after-indian-air-strike-pakistan-takes-journalists-to-balakot-site/articleshow/68636173.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1475189|title=Foreign journalists given access to madressah near site of Balakot strike|date=10 April 2019|website=DAWN.COM|access-date=20 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725154550/https://www.dawn.com/news/1475189|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/pakistan-takes-media-to-balakot-air-strike-site-curtails-interactions-2096733.html|title=43 Days After Balakot Air Strike by IAF, Pakistan Takes Media Team And Diplomats to 'Site'|date=10 April 2019|website=News18|access-date=20 July 2021|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604222045/https://www.news18.com/news/world/pakistan-takes-media-to-balakot-air-strike-site-curtails-interactions-2096733.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The incidents escalated the tension between India and Pakistan. The following day, Indian and Pakistani air forces got locked on in an aerial engagement. Pakistan claimed to have shot down two Indian aircraft and capturing one pilot [[Abhinandan Varthaman]]. Pakistan military officials claimed that the wreckage of one Indian aircraft fell in Pakistan administered Kashmir while the other one fell in Indian administered Kashmir rumored to be a [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI]]. Meanwhile, Indian version was about loss a [[MiG-21]] while shooting down a Pakistani [[F-16]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1466347|title=2 Indian aircraft violating Pakistani airspace shot down; pilot captured|date=27 February 2019|website=DAWN.COM|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227094831/https://www.dawn.com/news/1466347|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47397418|title=Fighter pilot 'opened fire' before capture|first=M. Ilyas|last=Khan|work=BBC News|date=1 March 2019|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301013431/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47397418|url-status=live}}</ref> The IAF also displayed remnants of an [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missile that they claimed could only be fired by F-16's air planes. The missiles were said to have fired against and jammed by Su-30 by IAF.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan Downs Two Indian Jets, Pilot Arrested, Army Says|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-02-27/pakistani-jets-violate-indian-air-space-in-kashmir-pti-reports|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2019-02-27|author=Iain Marlow and Kamran Haider|date=27 February 2019|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404195818/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-02-27/pakistani-jets-violate-indian-air-space-in-kashmir-pti-reports|url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan rejected the Indian claim of an F-16 shot down. It initially released three or later on displayed all four air to air missiles of MiG-21 Bison with all missile seeker heads recovered intact from the wreckage however with mid-body of one of [[R-73 (missile)|R-73]] destroyed and claimed that non-of missiles were ever fired.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1474086|title=ISPR releases 'proof' further contradicting Indian claim of shooting down F-16|date=5 April 2019|website=DAWN.COM|access-date=4 October 2019|archive-date=13 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913062443/https://www.dawn.com/news/1474086|url-status=live}}</ref> Following the threats of a full-scale war,<ref>{{Cite news|title = India, Pakistan came close to firing missiles at each other on February 27|url = https://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-pakistan-came-close-to-firing-missiles-at-each-other-on-february-27/story-rVsBjZ5qmxXMprktzDNqcM.html|date = 23 March 2019|access-date = 9 October 2019|newspaper = [[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> Abhinandan was released within two days. The Pentagon correspondent of [[Foreign Policy]] magazine, in a report claimed that Pakistan invited the United States to physically count its F-16 planes after the incident. Two senior U.S. defense officials told [[Foreign Policy]] that U.S. personnel recently counted Pakistan's F-16s and found none missing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/04/did-india-shoot-down-a-pakistani-jet-u-s-count-says-no/|title=Did India Shoot Down a Pakistani Jet? U.S. Count Says No.|first=Lara|last=Seligman|date=4 April 2019|access-date=4 October 2019|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123193754/https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/04/did-india-shoot-down-a-pakistani-jet-u-s-count-says-no/|url-status=live}}</ref> A Pentagon spokesman said they was not aware of any count being conducted,<ref>{{Cite news|title = 'Not aware': Pentagon on Pak F-16 count after Feb aerial dogfight with IAF|url = https://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/not-aware-pentagon-on-pak-f-16-count-after-feb-aerial-dogfight-with-iaf/story-Rw4gSknuuSBnMc2EyYe62H.html|date = 6 April 2019|access-date = 9 October 2019|newspaper = [[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> but the Pentagon did not put out any official statement on the matter. However, there have been no leaks countering the Foreign Policy report.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Analysis {{!}} Did India shoot down a Pakistani F-16 in February? This just became a big deal.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/04/17/did-india-shoot-down-pakistani-f-back-february-this-just-became-big-deal/|last1=Lalwani|first1=Sameer|last2=Tallo|first2=Emily|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=2020-05-14|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130122209/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/04/17/did-india-shoot-down-pakistani-f-back-february-this-just-became-big-deal/|url-status=live}}</ref> India released the electronic footage of aerial engagement to re-assert its claims.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Pakistan radio transmissions showed F-16 didn't return to its base: IAF|url = https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/pakistan-radio-transmissions-showed-f-16-didnt-return-to-its-base-iaf/articleshow/68748026.cms|date = 6 April 2019|access-date = 9 October 2019|newspaper = [[The Economic Times]]|archive-date = 24 April 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190424064657/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/pakistan-radio-transmissions-showed-f-16-didnt-return-to-its-base-iaf/articleshow/68748026.cms|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = Indian Radar Data That Supposedly Proves They Downed An F-16 Is Far From "Irrefutable"|url = https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/27331/indian-radar-data-that-supposedly-proves-they-downed-an-f-16-is-far-from-irrefutable|date = 8 April 2019|access-date = 9 October 2019|newspaper = The Drive|archive-date = 17 April 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190417203233/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/27331/indian-radar-data-that-supposedly-proves-they-downed-an-f-16-is-far-from-irrefutable|url-status = live}}</ref> Pakistani officials rejected radar images released by India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1946256/1-repetitions-dont-turn-lies-truth-dg-ispr-iaf-presser?amp=1|title=Repetitions don't turn lies into truth: DG ISPR on IAF presser|date=8 April 2019|work=Express Tribune|access-date=30 January 2021|archive-date=8 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208215649/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1946256/1-repetitions-dont-turn-lies-truth-dg-ispr-iaf-presser?amp=1|url-status=live}}</ref> Stand off followed with intermittent firings across the LoC. Months later on 8 October, India on its Air Force Day, flew the same [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI|Su-30MKI]] "Avenger 1" aircraft in a [[flypast]] that Pakistan had claimed it had shot down during the air battle on 27 February.<ref>{{cite web|last=Achom|first=Debanish|date=2019-10-09|title=On Air Force Day, IAF Disproves Pak Claim Of Shooting Down Sukhoi Fighter|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/on-air-force-day-iaf-flies-sukhoi-30mki-fighter-jet-that-pakistan-claims-it-shot-down-2113472?amp=1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329035058/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/on-air-force-day-iaf-flies-sukhoi-30mki-fighter-jet-that-pakistan-claims-it-shot-down-2113472?amp=1|archive-date=2021-03-29|access-date=2021-03-29|website=NDTV}}</ref>
*'''[[2020–2021 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]''': The standoff intensified when a major exchange of gunfire and [[Artillery|shelling]] erupted between [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[Pakistan Army|Pakistani troops]] in November 2020 along the Line of Control which left at least 22 dead, including 11 civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/13/pakistan-summons-top-indian-diplomat-over-kashmir-violence|title=India, Pakistan report deadly violence along Kashmir border|publisher=[[Al Jazeera English]]|date=13 November 2020|access-date=13 November 2020|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124001850/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/13/pakistan-summons-top-indian-diplomat-over-kashmir-violence|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Pakistan's foreign ministry]] said India had violated the ceasefire at least 2,729 times in 2020 which killed 21 Pakistani civilians and seriously injured 206 others.<ref name="aljazeera">{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/13/pakistan-summons-top-indian-diplomat-over-kashmir-violence|title=India, Pakistan report deadly violence along Kashmir border|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=13 November 2020|access-date=11 March 2022|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124001850/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/13/pakistan-summons-top-indian-diplomat-over-kashmir-violence|url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2021, India and Pakistan released a joint statement, stating that after discussions over established hotlines, the two sides agreed to "strict observance" of all peace and ceasefire agreements with effect from midnight of 25 February 2021. Both sides agreed existing forms of hotline contact and border flag meetings would be utilized to resolve any future misunderstanding.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-pakistan/india-pakistan-militaries-agree-to-stop-cross-border-firing-in-rare-joint-statement-idUSKBN2AP0PG | title=India, Pakistan militaries agree to stop cross-border firing in rare joint statement | newspaper=Reuters | date=25 February 2021 | access-date=11 March 2022 | archive-date=11 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311202746/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-pakistan/india-pakistan-militaries-agree-to-stop-cross-border-firing-in-rare-joint-statement-idUSKBN2AP0PG | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":joint">{{Cite web|title=Joint Statement|url=http://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1700682|access-date=2021-02-25|website=pib.gov.in|archive-date=10 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410163604/https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1700682|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Inter Services Public Relations Pakistan|url=https://ispr.gov.pk/press-release-detail.php?id=6068|access-date=2021-02-25|website=ispr.gov.pk|archive-date=20 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520073558/https://ispr.gov.pk/press-release-detail.php?id=6068|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Incidents==
* '''[[Atlantique Incident]]:''' [[Pakistan Navy]]'s [[Pakistan Naval Air Arm|Naval Air Arm]] [[Breguet Atlantique]] patrol plane, carrying 16 people on board, was shot down by the [[Indian Air Force]] for alleged violation of airspace. The episode took place in the [[Rann of Kutch]] on 10 August 1999, just a month after the [[Kargil War]], creating a tense atmosphere between India and [[Pakistan]]. Foreign diplomats noted that the plane fell inside Pakistani territory, although it may have crossed the border. However, they also believe that India's reaction was unjustified.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/419325.stm Pakistani plane "may have crossed border"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021018032538/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/419325.stm |date=18 October 2002 }} 13 August 1999 BBC Retrieved 23 July 2007</ref> Pakistan later lodged a compensation claim at the [[International Court of Justice]], accusing India for the incident, but the Court dismissed the case in a split decision ruling the Court did not have jurisdiction.<ref name="icjverdict">{{cite web| title=The Case concerning the Aerial Incident of 10th August, 1999 – Summaries of Judgments and Orders| url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=585&code=pi&p1=3&p2=3&case=119&k=b5&p3=5| publisher=[[International Court of Justice]]| date=21 June 2000| access-date=18 December 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015055439/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=585&code=pi&p1=3&p2=3&case=119&k=b5&p3=5| archive-date=15 October 2016| url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The '''[[2011 India–Pakistan border shooting]]''' incident took place between 30 August and 1 September 2011 across the [[Line of Control]] in [[Kupwara District]]/[[Neelam Valley]], resulting in five Indian soldiers<ref name=IBNLive>{{cite news|title=In 2011 five security men were martyred, according to the Indian Sources.|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/pakistan-violates-ceasefire-again-fires-on-13-border-outposts/520773-56.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109044536/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/pakistan-violates-ceasefire-again-fires-on-13-border-outposts/520773-56.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-01-09|agency=IBN Live}}</ref> and three Pakistani soldiers being killed. Both countries gave different accounts of the incident, each accusing the other of initiating the hostilities.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14746985|title=Kashmir border deaths spark India and Pakistan row|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=2 September 2011|date=1 September 2011|archive-date=5 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205044221/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-14746985|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="et">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/243324/loc-three-pakistani-soldiers-die-in-attack-by-indian-forces/|title=LoC: Three Pakistani soldiers died in attack by Indian forces|work=[[The Express Tribune]]|date=1 September 2011|access-date=1 September 2011|archive-date=14 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214180024/http://tribune.com.pk/story/243324/loc-three-pakistani-soldiers-die-in-attack-by-indian-forces/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''[[2013 India–Pakistan border incident]]''' in the Mendhar sector of Jammu and Kashmir, due to the beheading of an Indian soldier. A total of 22 soldiers (12 Indian and 10 Pakistani) died.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/Pak-troops-kill-two-jawans-behead-mutilate-one-of-them/articleshow/17945868.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119181106/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-09/india/36236820_1_indian-soldiers-pakistani-army-ceasefire-violation | url-status=live | archive-date=2013-01-19 | newspaper=[[The Times of India]] | title=Pak troops kill two jawans, behead, mutilate one of them}}</ref>
*'''[[2014–2015 India–Pakistan border skirmishes]]''': Started in Arnia sector of Jammu and Kashmir due to killing of 1 soldier of [[Border Security Force]] and injured 3 soldiers and 4 civilians by [[Pakistan Rangers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/08/16/India-and-Pakistan-exchange-fire-along-border-in-Kashmir/2051439754341/|title=India and Pakistan exchange fire along border in Kashmir|website=UPI|access-date=10 June 2020|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610192858/https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/08/16/India-and-Pakistan-exchange-fire-along-border-in-Kashmir/2051439754341/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Nuclear weapons==
The [[nuclear conflict]] between both countries is of passive strategic nature with [[nuclear doctrine of Pakistan]] stating a [[Pre-emptive nuclear strike|first strike]] policy, although the strike would only be initiated if and only if, the Pakistan Armed Forces are unable to halt an invasion (as for example in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]]) or a nuclear strike is launched against Pakistan,{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} whereas India has a declared [[India and weapons of mass destruction#India's no-first-use policy|policy]] of [[No first use#India|no first use]]. According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal ''[[Nature Food]]'' in August 2022, a nuclear war between India and Pakistan could kill more than 2 billion indirectly by [[starvation]] during a [[nuclear winter]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection |journal=[[Nature Food]] |date=15 August 2022 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0 |last1=Xia |first1=Lili |last2=Robock |first2=Alan |last3=Scherrer |first3=Kim |last4=Harrison |first4=Cheryl S. |last5=Bodirsky |first5=Benjamin Leon |last6=Weindl |first6=Isabelle |last7=Jägermeyr |first7=Jonas |last8=Bardeen |first8=Charles G. |last9=Toon |first9=Owen B. |last10=Heneghan |first10=Ryan |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=586–596 |pmid=37118594 |s2cid=251601831 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3039288 |hdl-access=free  | issn = 2662-1355}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=India-Pakistan nuclear war could kill 2 billion people: Study |url=https://www.wionews.com/india-news/india-pakistan-nuclear-war-could-kill-2-billion-people-study-507435 |work=[[WION]] |date=16 August 2022 |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117122640/https://www.wionews.com/india-news/india-pakistan-nuclear-war-could-kill-2-billion-people-study-507435 |url-status=live }}</ref>

* '''[[Pokhran-I]] ([[Smiling Buddha]]):''' On 18 May 1974 India detonated an 8-[[kiloton]] nuclear device at [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program - Smiling Buddha: 1974 |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=nuclearweaponarchive.org}}</ref> becoming the first nation to become nuclear capable outside the five permanent members of [[United Nations Security Council]] as well as dragging Pakistan along with it into a [[Nuclear arms race#India and Pakistan|nuclear arms race]]. Pakistani prime minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] had promised in 1965 that "if India builds the bomb, we will eat grass or leaves, even go hungry, but we will get one of our own", and India's Pokhran-I test spurred the Pakistani nuclear weapons program to greater efforts.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/pakistan-nuclear/ |title = Fact Sheet -- Nov 5, 2019: Pakistan Nuclear Overview |publisher = Nuclear Threat Initiative |date = 5 November 2019 |website = The Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) |access-date = 23 August 2022 |archive-date = 7 September 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220907014550/https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/pakistan-nuclear/ |url-status = live }}</ref> The [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) Chairman [[Munir Ahmed Khan]] said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb.<ref>{{cite web |last=Khan |first=Munir Ahmad |author-link=Munir Ahmad Khan |date=18 May 1974 |title=India's nuclear explosion: Challenge and Response |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3096318 |access-date=2022-04-22 |journal= |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency and Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission|jstor=3096318 }}</ref>
* '''[[Kirana-I]]:''' In the 1980s a series of 24 different [[Nuclear cold test|cold tests]] were conducted by PAEC, led by chairman Munir Ahmad Khan under extreme secrecy.<ref name="pakistanpaedia.com">{{cite web | title =Koh Kambaran (Ras Koh Hills) | publisher =Pakistan Paedia | url =http://www.pakistanpaedia.com/landmarks/RasKoh/Youm-e-Takbeer.htm | access-date =14 November 2011 | archive-date =30 November 2011 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20111130132001/http://www.pakistanpaedia.com/landmarks/RasKoh/Youm-e-Takbeer.htm | url-status =live }}</ref> The tunnels at [[Kirana Hills]], Sargodha, are reported to have been bored after the Chagai nuclear test sites, it is widely believed that the tunnels were constructed sometime between 1979 and 1983. As in Chagai, the tunnels at Kirana Hills had been bored and then sealed and this task was also undertaken by PAEC's DTD.<ref name="pakistanpaedia.com" /> Later due to excessive US intelligence and satellite focus on the Kirana Hills site, it was abandoned and nuclear weapons testing was shifted to the [[Kala Chitta Range]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program - Development |url=https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakDevelop.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=nuclearweaponarchive.org}}</ref>
* '''[[Pokhran-II]] ([[Operation Shakti]]):''' On 11 May 1998 India detonated another five nuclear devices at [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]]. With jubilation and large scale approval from the Indian society came International sanctions as a reaction to this test, the most vehement reaction of all coming from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a stern statement claiming that India was instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Pakistan vowed to match India's nuclear capability with statements like: "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/may/16bomb12.htm |title=Rediff on the NeT: It was 'Operation Shakti' on Budh Purnima |work=Rediff.com |date=16 May 1998 |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-date=2 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502202846/http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/may/16bomb12.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Herald Exclusive By Pervez Hoodbhoy 16 February 2011 |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html |title=Herald exclusive: Pakistan's nuclear bayonet &#124; Pakistan |publisher=Dawn.Com |date=16 February 2011 |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-date=18 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218212415/http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[Chagai-I]]: ([[Youm-e-Takbir]])''' Within half a month of [[Pokhran-II]], on 28 May 1998 Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices to reciprocate India in the [[Nuclear arms race#India and Pakistan|nuclear arms race]]. The Pakistani public, like the Indian, reacted with a celebration and a heightened sense of [[Pakistani nationalism|nationalism]] for responding to India in kind and becoming the only Muslim nuclear power. The day was later given the title [[Youm-e-Takbir]] to further proclaim such.<ref>{{Cite web |title=28 May 1998 - Pakistan nuclear tests: CTBTO Preparatory Commission |url=https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/28-may-1998-pakistan-nuclear-tests |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.ctbto.org |archive-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707184554/http://ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/28-may-1998-pakistan-nuclear-tests/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nuclearweaponarchive1998">{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakTests.html |title=Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program – 1998: The Year of Testing |access-date=16 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Baloch |first=Shah Meer |title=The Fallout From Pakistan's Nuclear Tests |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/the-fallout-from-pakistans-nuclear-tests/ |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320215820/https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/the-fallout-from-pakistans-nuclear-tests/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-05-30 |title=Yaum-e-Takbeer celebrated across country |url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=14989 |access-date=2022-04-22 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530033107/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=14989 |archive-date=30 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''[[Chagai-II]]:''' Two days later, on 30 May 1998, Pakistan detonated a sixth nuclear device completing its own series of underground tests with this being the last the two nations have carried out to date.<ref name="nuclearweaponarchive1998" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons |url=https://nuke.fas.org/guide/pakistan/nuke/ |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=nuke.fas.org |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406160358/https://nuke.fas.org/guide/pakistan/nuke/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Annual celebrations==

The nations of South Asia observe national and armed forces-specific days which originate from conflicts between India and Pakistan as follows:
* 28 May [[Chagai-I|(since 1998)]] as '''[[Youm-e-Takbir]]''' ('''The day of Greatness''') in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dunyanews.tv/index.php?key=Q2F0SUQ9MiNOaWQ9MjcwNTk= |title=Dunya News: Pakistan:-13th Youm-e-Takbeer to be observed today |publisher=Dunyanews.tv |date=28 May 2011 |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112121450/http://dunyanews.tv/index.php?key=Q2F0SUQ9MiNOaWQ9MjcwNTk= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nation.com.pk/28-May-2009/youmetakbeer-today |title=Youm-e-Takbeer today &#124; Pakistan &#124; News &#124; Newspaper &#124; Daily &#124; English &#124; Online |publisher=Nation.com.pk |date=28 May 2009 |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528204757/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/28-May-2009/YoumeTakbeer-today |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 26 July [[Kargil war|(since 1999)]] as '''[[Kargil Vijay Diwas]]''' ('''Kargil Victory Day''') in India.
* 6 September [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|(since 1965)]] as '''[[Defence Day]]''' ('''Youm-e-Difa''') in Pakistan.<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RPttAAAAMAAJ |title=Battle for Pakistan: the air war of 1965 – John Fricker – Google Boeken |date=1 January 1979 |access-date=16 December 2011|isbn=978-0-7110-0929-5|last1=Fricker |first1=John |publisher=I. Allan }}</ref>
* 7 September [[Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965|(since 1965)]] as '''[[Air Force Day (Pakistan)|Air Force Day]]''' ('''Youm-e-Fizaya''') in Pakistan.<ref name="google1" />
* 8 September [[Operation Dwarka|(since 1965)]] as '''[[Victory Day#September 8 in Pakistan|Victory Day]]/[[Navy Day#Pakistan|Navy Day]]''' ('''Youm-e-Bahr'ya''') in Pakistan.
* 4 December [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971|(since 1971)]] as '''[[Navy Day#India|Navy Day]]''' in India.
* 16 December [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971|(since 1971)]] as '''[[Vijay Diwas (India)|Vijay Diwas]]''' ('''Victory Day''') in India.
* 16 December [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971|(since 1971)]] as '''[[Bijoy Dibosh]]''' ('''Victory Day''') in Bangladesh.

==Involvement of other nations==
{{flag|Soviet Union}}: 
*The USSR remained neutral during the 1965 war<ref>Asymmetric Conflicts By T. V. Paul Cambridge University Press 1994 {{ISBN|0-521-46621-0}}, pp119</ref> and played a [[Tashkent Agreement|pivotal role]] in negotiating the peace agreement between India and Pakistan.<ref>See: [[Tashkent Agreement]]</ref> 
*The Soviet Union provided diplomatic and military assistance to India during the 1971 war. In response to the US and UK's deployment of the aircraft carriers {{USS|Enterprise|CVN-65|6}} and {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}}, Moscow sent nuclear submarines and warships with anti-ship missiles in the [[Arabian Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]], respectively.<ref name="theworldreporter.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.theworldreporter.com/2011/10/1971-india-pakistan-war-role-of-russia.html|title=1971 India Pakistan War: Role of Russia, China, America and Britain|work=The World Reporter|date=30 October 2011|access-date=30 October 2011|archive-date=1 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101184319/http://www.theworldreporter.com/2011/10/1971-india-pakistan-war-role-of-russia.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/Games.html |title=Cold war games |work=Bharat Rakshak |access-date=20 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609180906/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/Games.html |archive-date=9 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/birth-of-a-nation/552795/3 Birth of a nation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605140439/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/birth-of-a-nation/552795/3 |date=5 June 2020 }}. Indianexpress.com (11 December 2009). Retrieved on 2011-04-14.</ref>
{{flag|United States}}: 
*The US had not given any military aid to Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9896.html|title=United States – Pakistan Alliance|work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]], United States of America|date=April 1994|access-date=29 October 2010|archive-date=28 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628051409/http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9896.html|url-status=live}}</ref> 
*The United States provided diplomatic and military support to Pakistan during the 1971 war by sending {{USS|Enterprise|CVN-65|6}} into the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{cite news
| quote = The Nixon Administration's South Asia policy... is beyond redemption
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30915FB3D5A137A93CBA91789D95F458785F9
| author = John P. Lewis
| newspaper = The New York Times
| date = 9 December 1971
| page = 47
| title = Mr. Nixon and South Asia
| access-date = 8 September 2012
| archive-date = 28 September 2013
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130928162950/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30915FB3D5A137A93CBA91789D95F458785F9
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm 1971 War: How the US tried to corner India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828172624/http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm |date=28 August 2013 }}. Rediff.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-14.</ref><ref name=Santosh>{{cite book
|last = Burne
|first = Lester H.
|title = Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations: 1932–1988
|publisher = Routledge
|year= 2003
|isbn = 0-415-93916-X }}</ref> 
*The United States did not support Pakistan during the Kargil War, and successfully pressured the Pakistani administration to end hostilities.<ref name=Stanley/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/399897.stm|title=BBC News - South Asia - Kashmir: Dialogue call amid fresh fighting|website=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=8 September 2012|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213043125/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/399897.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Bill Clinton | title=[[My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)|My Life]] | publisher=[[Random House]] | year=2004|isbn=0-375-41457-6}}, Pg 865</ref>
{{flag|China}}: 
*China had helped Pakistan in various wars with diplomatic support.<ref name="USLib"/><ref name="transnational.org">[http://www.transnational.org/SAJT/forum/power/1998/pow12-08.html Pakistan and India Play With Nuclear Fire By Jonathan Power] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313011224/http://www.transnational.org/SAJT/forum/power/1998/pow12-08.html |date=13 March 2012 }} The Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research</ref><ref name=time-edge>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307230515/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910155-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 March 2008|title=India and Pakistan: Over the Edge|work=Time Magazine|date=13 December 1971|access-date=17 August 2011}}</ref>
{{flag|Russia}}: 
*Russia maintained a non-belligerent policy for both sides. Russia helped negotiate peace in 2001–02 and helped divert the 2008 crisis.<ref name="Dawn archives">{{cite news|last=Naqvi|first=Javed|title=Pressure mounts to stall war rhetoric|url=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/2001/dec2901.html|access-date=24 December 2012|newspaper=Dawn archives|date=29 December 2001|archive-date=13 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613203037/http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/2001/dec2901.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dawn Newspapers">{{cite news|last=Agencies|title=Pakistan, Russia renewing ties|url=http://dawn.com/2012/10/04/pakistan-russia-renewing-ties-fm-khar/|access-date=24 December 2012|newspaper=Dawn Newspapers|date=4 October 2012|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213043059/https://www.dawn.com/news/754142/pakistan-russia-renewing-ties-fm-khar|url-status=live}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
These wars have provided source material for both Indian and Pakistani film and television dramatists, who have adapted events of the war for the purposes of drama and to please target audiences in their nations.

===Indian films===
* ''[[Hindustan Ki Kasam (1973 film)|Hindustan Ki Kasam]]'', a 1973 [[Bollywood|Hindi]] [[war film]] based on [[Operation Cactus Lilly]] of the [[1971 Indo-Pakistani War]], directed by [[Chetan Anand (producer and director)|Chetan Anand]].
* ''[[Aakraman]]'', a 1975 Hindi war film based on the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by [[J. Om Prakash]].
* ''[[Vijeta (1982 film)|Vijeta]]'', a 1982 Hindi film based on the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, produced by [[Shashi Kapoor]] and directed by [[Govind Nihalani]].
* ''[[Param Vir Chakra (film)|Param Vir Chakra]]'', a 1995 Hindi film based on Indo-Pakistani War, directed by Ashok Kaul.<ref>{{cite web|title=Param Vir Chakra (1995)|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0940893/|publisher=IMDB|access-date=26 November 2011|archive-date=14 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014182644/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0940893/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Border (1997 film)|Border]]'', a 1997 Hindi war film based on the [[Battle of Longewala]] of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by [[J.P.Dutta]].
* ''[[LOC Kargil]]'', a 2003 Hindi war film based on the [[Kargil War]], directed by [[J. P. Dutta]].
* ''[[Deewaar (2004 film)|Deewaar]]'', a 2004 Hindi film starring [[Amitabh Bachchan]] based on the [[POW]] of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by [[Milan Luthria]].
* ''[[Lakshya (2004 film)|Lakshya]]'', a 2004 Hindi film partially based on the events of the Kargil War, directed by [[Farhan Akhtar]].
* ''[[1971 (2007 film)|1971]]'', 2007 Hindi war film based on a true story of prisoners of war after the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, directed by Amrit Sagar.
* ''[[Kurukshetra (2008 film)|Kurukshetra]]'', a 2008 Malayalam film starring [[Mohanlal]] based on Kargil War, directed by [[Major Ravi]].
* ''[[Tango Charlie (2005 film)|Tango Charlie]]'', a 2005 Hindi film starring [[Ajay Devgan]], and [[Bobby Deol]] based on Kargil Conflict, directed by [[Mani Shankar]].
* ''[[The Ghazi Attack]]'', a 2017 [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Hindi]] bilingual film based on the sinking of {{ship|PNS|Ghazi}}. 
* ''[[1971: Beyond Borders]]'', a 2017 Malayalam film, directed by Major Ravi.
* ''[[Raazi]]'', a 2018 [[Hindi]] film about an Indian spy during the Indo Pakistan war of 1971, directed by [[Meghna Gulzar]]
* ''[[Uri: The Surgical Strike]]'', a 2019 [[Hindi]] film about [[2016 Indian Line of Control strike|India's surgical strike into the Pakistani base camps]] after the [[2016 Uri attack|Uri incident]] in 2016.

=== Pakistani films, miniseries and dramas ===

* ''[[Angaar Waadi]]'', an [[Urdu]] drama serial based on the [[Kashmir]] conflict, directed by [[Rauf Khalid]]<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |author=APP 25 November 2011 |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/11/25/prominent-writer-actor-rauf-khalid-dies-in-road-accident.html |title=Prominent writer, actor, Rauf Khalid dies in road accident &#124; Entertainment |publisher=Dawn.Com |date=25 November 2011 |access-date=15 January 2012 |archive-date=28 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228103145/http://www.dawn.com/2011/11/25/prominent-writer-actor-rauf-khalid-dies-in-road-accident.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Laag (drama)|Laag]]'', an Urdu drama serial based on the Kashmir conflict, directed by Rauf Khalid<ref name="autogenerated1" />
* ''[[PNS Ghazi (Shaheed)]]'', an Urdu drama based on [[sinking of PNS Ghazi]], [[Inter Services Public Relations|ISPR]]
* ''[[Alpha Bravo Charlie]]'', an Urdu drama serial based on three different aspects of [[Pakistan Army]]'s involvement in action, directed by [[Shoaib Mansoor]]
* ''[[Sipahi Maqbool Hussain]]'', an Urdu drama serial based on a 1965 war [[POW]], directed by Haider Imam Rizvi

==See also==
* [[United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan]]
* [[India–Pakistan relations]]
* [[Two-nation theory]]
* [[Patriotic hacking]]
* [[List of wars involving India]]
* [[List of wars involving Pakistan]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==

* Chaudhuri, Rudra. "‘Just Another Border Incident’: The Rann of Kutch and the 1965 India–Pakistan War." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 42.5 (2019): 654-676. [https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/108241284/Just_another_border_incident_CHAUDHURI_Accepted_2019_GREEN_AAM.pdf online]
* Cheema, Musarat Javed. "Pakistan–India conflict with special reference to Kashmir." ''South Asian Studies'' 30.1 (2020). [http://journals.pu.edu.pk/journals/index.php/IJSAS/article/view/2983/1196 online]
* Cloughley, Brian. ''A history of the Pakistan army: wars and insurrections'' (Simon and Schuster, 2016).
* Dixit, J. N. ''India-Pakistan in War & Peace'' (2002).
* {{citation |author=Higgins, David R.|title=M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistan War 1965|year=2016|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-14-7281-094-6|page=103|ref={{sfnref|David R. Higgins|2016}}}}
* Impiani, Dwi. "Escalation of Military Conflict between India and Pakistan in the Post Lahore Declaration (1999–2019): Security Dilemma Perspective." ''Global: Jurnal Politik Internasional'' 21.2 (2019): 219–241. [https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1063&context=global online]
* Indurthy, Rathnam. ''India–Pakistan wars and the Kashmir crisis'' (Routledge India, 2019).
* Kaura, Vinay. "India’s Pakistan policy: from 2016 ‘surgical strike’ to 2019 Balakot ‘airstrike’." ''The Round Table'' 109.3 (2020): 277–287. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00358533.2020.1760499 online]
* Lyon, Peter. ''Conflict between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia'' (2008).
* Mohan, Surinder. ''Complex Rivalry: The Dynamics of India-Pakistan Conflict'' (University of Michigan Press, 2022).
* Siddiqa, Ayesha. ''Military Inc.: inside Pakistan’s military economy'' (Penguin Random House India, 2017).
* Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose, eds. ''War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh'' (1991)
* {{citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |archive-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213073754/https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ |url-status=live }}

===Primary sources===
* {{citation |author=Rachna Bisht|title=1965: Stories from the Second Indo-Pakistan War|year= 2015|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-93-5214-129-6|page=60|ref={{sfnref|Rachna Bisht|2015}}}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Indo-Pakistani wars}}
* [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552636 Nuclear Proliferation in India and Pakistan] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]

{{Kashmir conflict}}
{{Indo-Pakistani relations}}
{{Military of India}}
{{Military history of Pakistan}}

[[Category:Indo-Pakistani wars| ]]
[[Category:India–Pakistan military relations| ]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of India]]
[[Category:Post-independence history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Wars involving India|Indo-Pakistan]]<!--to sort overview article before individual war's articles-->
[[Category:Wars involving Pakistan|Indo-Pakistan]]<!--to sort overview article before individual war's articles-->
{{South Asian topics}}
[[Category:Geopolitical rivalry]]