Paiwan (Paiwan: Vinuculjan, [vinutsuʎan]) is a native language of southern Taiwan. It is spoken as a first language by the ethnic Paiwan, a Taiwanese indigenous people, and historically as a second language by many people in southern Taiwan. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is also one of the national languages of Taiwan.[2]
| Paiwan | |
|---|---|
| Vinuculjan, Pinayuanan | |
| Pronunciation | [vinutsuʎan] |
| Native to | Taiwan |
| Ethnicity | Paiwan |
Native speakers | L1:96,000 (2014)[1] |
Austronesian
| |
| Latin script (Paiwan alphabet) | |
| Official status | |
Official language in |  Taiwan[2] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pwn |
| Glottolog | paiw1248 |
 Distribution of Paiwan language (dark green, south) | |
 Paiwan is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger | |
Dialects
editPaiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.[3]
- A1 – southern and central
- Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
- Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
- Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
- A2 – central
- Ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
- Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
- B1 – northernmost
- Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
- Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
- B2 – northwestern
- Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
- Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
- B3 – east-central
- Tjariḍik (Charilik)
- B4 – eastern
- Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
- Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)
This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:[full citation needed]
Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.
- Paridrayan group (Ravar)
- Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
- Tjailjaking
- Tineljepan
- Cavak
- Tjukuvulj
- Timur group
- Timur
- Tavatavang
- Vuljulju
- Sagaran (Ravar-Vuculj mixture)
- Makazayazaya branch
- 'ulaljuc
- Idra
- Masilidj
- Makazayazaya
- Paljulj
- Kazangiljan
- Masisi
- Kazazaljan
- 'apedang
- Kaviyangan
- Puljetji
- Tjuaqau
- Eastern branch
- Paumeli
- Tjulitjulik
- Viljauljaulj
- Kaljataran
- Ka'aluan
- Tjua'au
- Sapulju
- Kingku
- Djumulj
- Tjukuvulj
- Tjagaraus branch
- Payuan
- Padain
- Piuma
- Raxekerek branch (west)
- Raxekerek
- Kinaximan
- Tjevecekadan
- Raxekerek branch (east)
- Tjahiljik
- Tjacuqu
- Tjatjigelj
- Tjaqup
- Rahepaq
- Kaljapitj
- Qeceljing
- Pacavalj
- Kuvaxeng
- Utjaqas
- Ljupetj
- Tjala'avus branch
- Tjalja'avus
- Calasiv
- Tjana'asia
- Pucunug
- Vungalid
- Pailjus
Phonology
editKuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants (/h/ is found only in loanwords, and /ʔ/ is uncommon) and 4 vowels.[4] Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.
The four Paiwan vowels are /i ə a u/. /ə/ is written ⟨e⟩ in the literature.
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c | k | q | ʔ | |
| voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ | |||
| Affricate | ts | |||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | s | (h) | |||||
| voiced | v | z | ||||||
| Trill | r | |||||||
| Approximant | w | l | ʎ j | |||||
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c ⟨tj⟩ | k | q ⟨q⟩ | ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩ | |
| voiced | b | d | ɖ ⟨dr⟩ | ɟ ⟨dj⟩ | ɡ | |||
| Affricate | ts ~ tʃ ⟨c⟩ | |||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | s | (h) | |||||
| voiced | v | z | ||||||
| Rhotic | r ~ ɣ ⟨r⟩ | |||||||
| Approximant | ʋ ⟨w⟩ | ɭ ⟨l⟩ | ʎ ⟨lj, ɬ⟩ j ⟨y⟩ | |||||
In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). /ʔ/ is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ | ||
| voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɡ | |||
| Affricate | ts | ||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | s | (h) | ||||
| voiced | v | z | |||||
| Trill~ Fricative |
r | ||||||
| Approximant | w | l ~ ʎ | ɭ | j | |||
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c | k | q | ʔ | |
| voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ | |||
| Affricate | ts | |||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | s | (h) | |||||
| voiced | v | z | ɣ ~ r | |||||
| Approximant | w | ɭ | ʎ j | |||||
Younger speakers tend to pronounce /ʎ/ as [l]. Fricative [ɣ] is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere is Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill [r], though it still varies [r ~ ɣ ~ ʁ ~ h]. Word-initial *k has become /ʔ/.
Grammar
editPronouns
editThe Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982).[6]
| Gloss | Equational | Genitive | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -aken, ti-aken | ku-, ni-aken | tjanu-aken |
| 2SG | -sun, ti-sun | su-, ni-sun | tjanu-sun |
| 3SG | ti-madju | ni-madju | tjai-madju |
| 1PL.INCL | -itjen, ti-tjen | tja-, ni-tjen | tjanu-itjen |
| 1PL.EXCL | -amen, ti-amen | nia-, ni-amen | tjanu-amen |
| 2PL | -mun, ti-mun | nu-, ni-mun | tjanu-mun |
| 3PL | ti-a-madju | ni-a-madju | tjai-a-madju |
Function words
editPaiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.[7]
- a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia
- nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia
- tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *tjai, personal plural = tjaia
Other words include:
- i – be at, in (place)
- nu – if when
- na – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
- uri – definite future negative marker
- uri – definite future marker
- ɬa – emphasis, setting apart
Affixed adverbials include:[6]
- -tiaw
- nu-tiaw: tomorrow
- ka-tiaw: yesterday
- -sawni
- nu-sawni: soon, in a little while (future)
- ka-sawni: a little while ago
- -ngida
- nu-ngida: when? (future)
- ka-ngida: when? (past)
Interjections include the following:[8]
- ui – yes
- ini – no (not do)
- neka – no, not (not exist)
- ai – oh! (surprise, wonder)
- ai ḍivá – alas!
- uá – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
- ai ḍaḍá – ouch! (pain)
Verbs
editPaiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.[9]
- Agent/Actor
- Object/Goal/Patient
- Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
- Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin
The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.[10]
- ki- (intentional)
- pa- (intentional)
- -m- (volitionally ambiguous)
- si- (volitionally ambiguous)
- ma- (non-intentional)
- se- (non-intentional)
Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.[7]
- -anga: "certainly," "truly doing"
- -angata: "definitely" (emphatic)
- -anga: "still, yet, continuing to"
Affixes
editThe Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982).[11]
- Prefixes
- ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
- ka- -an: principal, main
- kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
- ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
- pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
- ka-si-: come from
- ken(e)-: eat, drink, consume
- ki-: get, obtain
- ku-: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
- ɬa-: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
- ɬe-: to go in the direction of
- ɬia-: (have) come to be in/at
- li-: have quality of
- ma-: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
- mare-: having reciprocal relationship
- mare-ka-: in some general category
- maɬe-: number of persons
- me-: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
- mere-: be gigantic, super-
- mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
- mi- -an: pretend, claim
- mu-: agent marker (certain verbs)
- ka-na- -anga: every
- pa-: to cause to be/occur
- pe-: emerge, come into view
- pi-: put in/on; do something to
- pu-: have or produce; acquire
- pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
- ma-pu-: do nothing except ...
- ra-: having to do with
- r-m-a-: do at/during
- r-m-a- -an: do at/in
- sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
- pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
- ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
- na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
- san(e)-: construct, work on/in
- ki-sane(e)-: become/act as; one who acts as
- ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
- se-: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
- s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
- si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
- ma-si-: carry, transport
- su-: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
- ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
- ta-: past marker
- tu-: similar to, like
- ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
- tja-: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
- ki-tja-: take along for use
- tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
- tjara-: be definitely
- tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
- tjari-: furthest, utmost
- tja-u-: to have just done
- tje-: choose to do at/from
- ka-tje- -an: containing
- tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
- tji-a-: be/remain at
- tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
- m-uri-: search for
- Infixes
- -aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
- -ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
- -m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
- -in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words
- Suffixes
- -an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
- -en: object/goal of action; object focus
- -aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
- -u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
- -i: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
- -ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time
The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).
- Nouns
- -aḷ-, -alʸ- 'tiny things'
- -in- 'things made from plant roots'
- -an 'place' (always used with another affix)
- mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
- pu- 'rich'
- ḳay- 'vegetation'
- sə- 'inhabitants'
- cua- 'name of a tribe'
- Verbs
- -aŋa 'already done'
- ka- 'to complete'
- kə- 'to do something oneself'
- ki- 'to do something to oneself'
- kisu- 'to get rid of'
- kicu- 'to do something separately'
- maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
- mə- 'to experience, to be something'
- pa- 'to cause someone to do something'
- pu- 'to produce, to get something'
- sa- 'to be willing to do something'
- calʸu- 'to arrive at'
- Adjectives
- ma- 'being'
- na- 'with the quality of'
- səcalʸi- 'very'
- ca- 'more than'
Notes
edit- ^ "Amis Remains Taiwan's Biggest Aboriginal Tribe at 37.1% of Total". Focus Taiwan. CNA. February 15, 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-16.
- ^ a b Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán fāzhǎn fǎ 原住民族語言發展法 [Indigenous Languages Development Act] (PDF) (in Chinese) – via Lìfayuan quanqiu falu zixun wang
- ^ Ferrell 1982, pp. 4–6.
- ^ Ferrell 1982, p. 7.
- ^ a b c Chen, Chun-mei (2006). A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). The University of Texas at Austin. hdl:2152/3758.
- ^ a b Ferrell 1982, p. 14.
- ^ a b Ferrell 1982, p. 13.
- ^ Ferrell 1982, p. 12.
- ^ Ferrell 1982, p. 30.
- ^ Ferrell 1982, p. 37.
- ^ Ferrell 1982, pp. 15–27.
References
edit- Chang, Anna Hsiou-chuan (2006). A Reference Grammar of Paiwan (Ph.D. thesis). Australian National University. doi:10.25911/5D778712291BF. hdl:1885/10719.
- Chang, Hsiu-chuan 張秀絹 (2018). Páiwānyǔ yǔfǎ gàilùn 排灣語語法概論 [Introduction to Paiwan Grammar] (in Chinese). Xinbei shi: Yuanzhu minzu weiyuanhui. ISBN 978-986-05-5690-2 – via alilin.apc.gov.tw.
- Early, Robert; Whitehorn, John (2003). One Hundred Paiwan Texts. Pacific Linguistics 542. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. doi:10.15144/PL-542. hdl:1885/146710. ISBN 0-85883-479-0.
- Egli, Hans (1990). Paiwangrammatik [Paiwan Grammar] (in German). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447030502.
- Ferrell, Raleigh (1982). Paiwan Dictionary. Pacific Linguistics Series C – No. 73. Canberra: The Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-C73. hdl:1885/145076. ISBN 978-0-85883-264-0.
External links
edit- Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典 (in Chinese) – Paiwan search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
- Paiwan teaching and leaning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan Archived 2021-11-20 at the Wayback Machine (in Chinese)
- Paiwan translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people – published on the website of the presidential office
Paiwan edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia