Appendix:Eastern Min Swadesh list
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This is a Swadesh list of words in Eastern Min, compared with definitions in English.
Presentation
[edit]- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List
[edit]| № | English | Eastern Min 閩東語／闽东语 (mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄) edit (207) | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | 我 (nguāi) | ŋuai³³ |
| 2 | you (2sg) | 汝 (nṳ̄) | ny³³ |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | 伊 (ĭ) | i⁵⁵ |
| 4 | we (1pl) | 我各儂／我各侬 (nguāi gáuk→gó̤k-nè̤ng) | ŋuai³³ koʔ²⁴⁻²¹ nøŋ⁵³ |
| 5 | you (2pl) | 汝各儂／汝各侬 (nṳ̄ gáuk→gó̤k-nè̤ng) | ny³³ koʔ²⁴⁻²¹ nøŋ⁵³ |
| 6 | they (3pl) | 伊各儂／伊各侬 (ĭ gáuk→gó̤k-nè̤) | i⁵⁵ koʔ²⁴⁻²¹ nøŋ⁵³ |
| 7 | this | 嚽／𪢕 (cuòi), 茲隻／兹只 | tsui⁵³, tsi⁵⁵ ʒiɛʔ³⁵ |
| 8 | that | 噲／哙 (huòi), 許隻／许只 (hī-ciáh→ciéh) | hui⁵³, hi⁵⁵ ʒiɛʔ³⁵ |
| 9 | here | 嚽塊／𪢕块 (cŭ-uái), 嚽所／𪢕所 | tsu⁵⁵ uɑi²¹³, tsø³⁵ nø³³ |
| 10 | there | 夫塊／夫块, 夫所 | hu⁵⁵ uɑi²¹³, hø³⁵ nø³³ |
| 11 | who | 底儂／底侬 (diē→dié-nè̤ng, dē̤→dé̤-nè̤ng) | tie⁵⁵ nøŋ⁵³ |
| 12 | what | 什乇 (sié-nó̤h, siéh-nó̤h) | sie⁵³ nɔʔ³⁵ |
| 13 | where | 底所 (diē-nē̤, dē̤-nē̤) | tie⁵³ nø³³ |
| 14 | when | 什乇辰候 | siɛ²¹ no⁵³ sɑiŋ²¹ ɑu²⁴² |
| 15 | how | 蔣／蒋 (ciōng) | tsuɔŋ²⁴² |
| 16 | not | 伓 (îng), 伓是 (îng-sê) | iŋ⁵³, iŋ⁵³ nei²⁴² |
| 17 | all | 全部 (ciòng-buô), 所有 (sū-iū), 一切 | tsuɔŋ²¹ buɔ²⁴², su³⁵ iu³³, i⁵⁵ tsʰiɛʔ³⁵ |
| 18 | many | 価 (cá̤) | sɑ²⁴² |
| 19 | some | 仂囝 (nék→ník-giāng) | neiʔ³⁵ kiaŋ³³ |
| 20 | few | 少 (ciēu) | tsieu³³ |
| 21 | other | 其他 (gì-tă) | ki⁵⁵ tʰa⁵⁵ |
| 22 | one | 蜀 (siŏh), 一 (ék) | suɔ⁵⁵, eiʔ³⁵ |
| 23 | two | 兩／两 (lâng), 二 (nê) | lɑŋ²⁴², nei²⁴² |
| 24 | three | 三 (săng) | saŋ⁵⁵ |
| 25 | four | 四 (sé) | sei²¹³ |
| 26 | five | 五 (ngô) | ŋou²⁴² |
| 27 | big | 大 (duâi) | tuɑi²⁴² |
| 28 | long | 長／长 (dòng) | touŋ⁵³ |
| 29 | wide | 寬／宽 (kuăng) | kʰuaŋ⁵⁵ |
| 30 | thick | 厚 (gâu) | kɑu²⁴² |
| 31 | heavy | 重 (dâe̤ng) | tɔyŋ²⁴² |
| 32 | small | 嫩 (nâung) | nɑuŋ²⁴² |
| 33 | short | 短 (dōi) | tɔi³³ |
| 34 | narrow | 窄 (cáh) | tsiaʔ³⁵ |
| 35 | thin | 薄 (bŏk) | pɔʔ⁵⁵ |
| 36 | woman | 女界 (nṳ̄-gái) | ny³³ ɑi²¹³ |
| 37 | man (adult male) | 男界 (nàng-gái) | nɑŋ²¹ ŋɑi²¹³ |
| 38 | man (human being) | 儂／侬 (nè̤ng) | nøŋ⁵³ |
| 39 | child | 伲囝 (niê-giāng) | nie⁵³ iaŋ³³ |
| 40 | wife | 老媽／老妈 (lâu-mā) | lau⁵³ ma³³ |
| 41 | husband | 唐餔／唐𫗦 (dòng-buŏ) | touŋ⁵⁵ muo⁵⁵ |
| 42 | mother | 娘奶 (nòng-nā̤) | nouŋ³³ ne³³ |
| 43 | father | 郎爸 | nɔuŋ²¹ mɑ²⁴² |
| 44 | animal | 動物／动物 (dông-ŭk) | tuŋ⁵⁵ uʔ⁵⁵ |
| 45 | fish | 魚／鱼 (ngṳ̀) | ŋy⁵³ |
| 46 | bird | 鳥囝／鸟囝 | tsiɛu³⁵ iaŋ³³ |
| 47 | dog | 犬囝 (kēng-giāng) | kʰeiŋ³⁵ iaŋ³³ |
| 48 | louse | 蝨母／虱母 (sáik-mō̤) | saiʔ³⁵ mo³³ |
| 49 | snake | 老蛇 (lâu-siè) | lau⁵⁵ lie⁵³ |
| 50 | worm | 蟲囝／虫囝 (tè̤ng-giāng) | tʰœŋ³³ ŋiaŋ³³ |
| 51 | tree | 樹／树 (chéu) | tsʰieu²¹³ |
| 52 | forest | 森林 (sĕng-lìng) | seŋ⁵⁵ liŋ⁵³ |
| 53 | stick | 樹椏／树桠 | tsʰieu⁵³ ŋa³³ |
| 54 | fruit | 果實／果实 | kuo³³ siʔ⁵⁵ |
| 55 | seed | 子子 (cī-*cī) | tsi³³ tsi³³ |
| 56 | leaf | 箬箬 (niŏh-niŏh) | nuoʔ⁵⁵ nuoʔ⁵⁵ |
| 57 | root | 根根 | kyŋ⁵⁵ kyŋ⁵⁵ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | 樹皮／树皮 | tsʰiɛu⁵⁵ pʰoi⁵³ |
| 59 | flower | 花 (huă) | hua⁵⁵ |
| 60 | grass | 草 (chāu) | tsʰau³³ |
| 61 | rope | 索 (só̤h) | sɔʔ³⁵ |
| 62 | skin | 皮膚／皮肤 (puòi-hŭ) | pʰoi⁵⁵ u⁵⁵ |
| 63 | meat | 肉 (nṳ̆k) | nyʔ⁵⁵ |
| 64 | blood | 血 (háik) | hɑiʔ³⁵ |
| 65 | bone | 骨骨 (gáuk-gáuk) | kɑu²¹ kauʔ³⁵ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | 脂肪 (ciĕ-huòng) | tsie⁵⁵ uoŋ⁵³ |
| 67 | egg | 卵 (lâung) | lɑuŋ²⁴² |
| 68 | horn | 角角 (gáe̤k-gáe̤k) | køy²¹ køyʔ³⁵ |
| 69 | tail | 尾尾 (muōi-muōi) | muoi³³ muoi³³ |
| 70 | feather | 羽毛 (ṳ̄-mò̤) | y²¹ mo⁵³ |
| 71 | hair | 頭髮／头发 (tàu-huók) | tʰɑu²¹ uɔʔ³⁵ |
| 72 | head | 頭／头 (tàu) | tʰau⁵³ |
| 73 | ear | 耳 (ngê) | ŋei²⁴² |
| 74 | eye | 目睭 (mĕk-ciŭ) | meiʔ⁵⁵ tsiu⁵⁵ |
| 75 | nose | 鼻 (pé) | pʰei²¹³ |
| 76 | mouth | 喙 (chói) | tsʰui²¹³ |
| 77 | tooth | 牙 (ngāi) | ŋai³³ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | 喙舌 (ché̤ṳ-siĕk) | tsʰy⁵⁵ lieʔ⁵⁵ |
| 79 | fingernail | 掌甲 (ciēng-gák) | tsʰieŋ⁵⁵ ŋɑʔ³⁵ |
| 80 | foot | 骹 | kʰa⁵⁵ |
| 81 | leg | 骹腿 (kă-tōi) | kʰa⁵³ løy³³ |
| 82 | knee | 骹屈頭／骹屈头 | kʰɑ²¹ u²¹ tʰau⁵³ |
| 83 | hand | 手 (chiū) | tsʰiu³³ |
| 84 | wing | 翼翼 (sĭk-sĭk) | siʔ⁵⁵ siʔ⁵⁵ |
| 85 | belly | 腹老 (bók-lō̤) | pu³⁵ lo³³ |
| 86 | guts | 腸／肠 (dòng) | toŋ⁵³ |
| 87 | neck | 脰骨 (dâu-gáuk) | ta⁵³ ɑuʔ³⁵ |
| 88 | back | 骿 (piăng) | pʰiaŋ⁵⁵ |
| 89 | breast | ？？ | neiŋ⁵⁵ neiŋ⁵⁵ |
| 90 | heart | 心臟／心脏 (sĭng-câung) | sing⁵³ ʒɑuŋ²⁴² |
| 91 | liver | 肝臟／肝脏 (găng-câung) | kaŋ⁵³ ʒɑuŋ²⁴² |
| 92 | to drink | 啜 | tsʰuɔʔ³⁵ |
| 93 | to eat | 食 | sieʔ⁵⁵ |
| 94 | to bite | 咬 | kɑ²⁴² |
| 95 | to suck | 吸, 噈 | ŋeiʔ³⁵, sɔʔ³⁵ |
| 96 | to spit | 啡, 吐 | pʰui⁵³, tou²¹³ |
| 97 | to vomit | 哊 (áe̤h→é̤h) | œʔ³⁵ |
| 98 | to blow | 吹 (chuŏi), 㖹 | tsʰui⁵⁵, puŋ⁵³ |
| 99 | to breathe | 呼吸 (hù-ngék) | hu²¹ ŋeiʔ³⁵ |
| 100 | to laugh | 笑 (chiéu) | tsʰiɛu²¹³ |
| 101 | to see | 覷／觑 (ché̤ṳ) | tsʰøy²¹³ |
| 102 | to hear | 聽／听 | tʰiaŋ⁵⁵ |
| 103 | to know | 仈 (báik) | pɑiʔ³⁵ |
| 104 | to think | 想 (siōng) | suoŋ³³ |
| 105 | to smell | 齅 (bê) | pei²⁴² |
| 106 | to fear | 驚／惊 | kiaŋ⁵⁵ |
| 107 | to sleep | 睏／困 (káung) | kʰɑuŋ²¹³ |
| 108 | to live | 住 | tieu²⁴² |
| 109 | to die | 死 | si³³ |
| 110 | to kill | 刣 (tài) | tʰai⁵³ |
| 111 | to fight | 相拍 (siŏng-*páh) | soŋ⁵³ pʰɑʔ³⁵ |
| 112 | to hunt | 討／讨 (tō̤) | tʰo³³ |
| 113 | to hit | 拍 (páh) | pʰɑʔ³⁵ |
| 114 | to cut | 砍, 削 (siók) | kʰaŋ³³, suɔʔ³⁵ |
| 115 | to split | 分 | puoŋ⁵⁵ |
| 116 | to stab | ？ | kiʔ⁵⁵ |
| 117 | to scratch | 扒 (bà) | pa⁵³ |
| 118 | to dig | 挖 (uă) | ua⁵⁵ |
| 119 | to swim | 泅 (siù) | siu⁵³ |
| 120 | to fly | 飛／飞 | puoi⁵⁵ |
| 121 | to walk | 行 | kiaŋ⁵³ |
| 122 | to come | 來／来 | li⁵³ |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | 倒 | to³³ |
| 124 | to sit | 坐 | suɑi²⁴² |
| 125 | to stand | 徛 (kiê) | kʰiɛ²⁴² |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | 轉／转 | tuoŋ³³ |
| 127 | to fall | 逿／𰺲 (dâung) | tɑuŋ²⁴² |
| 128 | to give | 乞 (ké̤ṳk) | kʰøyʔ³⁵ |
| 129 | to hold | 掏 (dò̤) | to⁵³ |
| 130 | to squeeze | 攝／摄 | niɛʔ³⁵ |
| 131 | to rub | 磨 | muai⁵³ |
| 132 | to wash | 洗 (sā̤) | se³³ |
| 133 | to wipe | 拭 (chék) | tsʰeiʔ³⁵ |
| 134 | to pull | 牽／牵 | kʰeiŋ⁵⁵ |
| 135 | to push | 捵 (tiāng) | tiaŋ³³ |
| 136 | to throw | 扔 | køʔ⁵⁵ |
| 137 | to tie | 縛／缚 (buŏh) | puɔʔ⁵⁵ |
| 138 | to sew | 䋎／𬘜 (tiéng) | tʰieŋ²¹³ |
| 139 | to count | 數／数 | sɑuŋ²¹³ |
| 140 | to say | 講／讲 (gōng) | koŋ³³ |
| 141 | to sing | 唱 (chióng) | tsʰuɔŋ²¹³ |
| 142 | to play | 客佻 (káh-dièu) | kʰa⁵⁵ lieu⁵³ |
| 143 | to float | 浮 | pʰu⁵³ |
| 144 | to flow | 流 | lau⁵³ |
| 145 | to freeze | 結冰／结冰 | kiɛ²¹ piŋ⁵⁵ |
| 146 | to swell | 腫／肿 (cṳ̄ng) | tsyŋ³³ |
| 147 | sun | 日頭／日头 (nĭk-tàu) | niʔ⁵⁵ tʰau⁵³ |
| 148 | moon | 月 (nguŏk) | ŋuoʔ⁵⁵ |
| 149 | star | 星星 (sĭng sĭng) | siŋ⁵⁵ siŋ⁵⁵ |
| 150 | water | 水 | tsui³³ |
| 151 | rain | 雨 | y³³ |
| 152 | river | 河 (ò̤) | o⁵³ |
| 153 | lake | 湖 (hù) | hu⁵³, u⁵³ |
| 154 | sea | 海 (hāi) | hai³³ |
| 155 | salt | 鹽／盐 | sieŋ⁵³ |
| 156 | stone | 石 | suoʔ⁵⁵ |
| 157 | sand | 沙 | sai⁵⁵ |
| 158 | dust | 塕塵／塕尘 (ŭng-dìng) | uŋ⁵⁵ niŋ⁵³ |
| 159 | earth | 涂 | tʰu⁵³ |
| 160 | cloud | 雲／云 (hùng) | huŋ⁵³ |
| 161 | fog | 霧／雾 (ô) | ɔ²⁴² |
| 162 | sky | 天 (tiĕng) | tʰieŋ⁵⁵ |
| 163 | wind | 風／风 (hŭng) | huŋ⁵⁵ |
| 164 | snow | 雪 (siók) | suɔʔ³⁵ |
| 165 | ice | 冰 (bĭng) | piŋ⁵⁵ |
| 166 | smoke | 煙／烟 (iĕng) | ieŋ⁵⁵, hoŋ⁵⁵ |
| 167 | fire | 火 | huoi³³ |
| 168 | ash | 灰 (huŏi) | u⁵⁵ |
| 169 | to burn | 燒／烧 (siĕu) | sieu⁵⁵ |
| 170 | road | 墿／𰉣 (diô) | tuɔ²⁴² |
| 171 | mountain | 山 (săng) | saŋ⁵⁵ |
| 172 | red | 紅／红 | øyŋ⁵³ |
| 173 | green | 綠／绿 | luoʔ⁵⁵ |
| 174 | yellow | 黃／黄 (uòng) | uoŋ⁵³ |
| 175 | white | 白 | paʔ⁵⁵ |
| 176 | black | 烏／乌 (ŭ) | u⁵⁵ |
| 177 | night | 暝晡 (màng-buŏ) | maŋ⁵⁵ muo⁵⁵ |
| 178 | day | 日中 (nĭk-dŏng) | niʔ⁵⁵ toŋ⁵⁵ |
| 179 | year | 年 (nièng) | nieŋ⁵³ |
| 180 | warm | 熱／热 (iĕk) | ieʔ⁵⁵ |
| 181 | cold | 凊 (chéng) | tsʰeiŋ²¹³ |
| 182 | full | 滿／满 | muaŋ³³ |
| 183 | new | 新 (sĭng) | siŋ⁵⁵ |
| 184 | old | 舊／旧 | kou²⁴² |
| 185 | good | 好 | ho³³ |
| 186 | bad | 呆 (ngài) | ŋai⁵³ |
| 187 | rotten | 飲腐／饮腐 | aŋ⁵⁵ pou²⁴² |
| 188 | dirty | 拉渣 | la⁵⁵ ʒia⁵⁵ |
| 189 | straight | 直 (dĭk) | tiʔ⁵⁵ |
| 190 | round | 圓／圆, 環／环 (kuàng) | ieŋ⁵³, kʰuaŋ⁵³ |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | 利 | lɛ²¹³ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | 𣍐利／𫧃利 | mɛ⁵³ lɛ²¹³ |
| 193 | smooth | 滑 | koʔ⁵⁵ |
| 194 | wet | 潤／润, 潮濕／潮湿, 濫／滥 (lâng) | nɔŋ²¹³, tieu²¹³, lɑŋ²⁴² |
| 195 | dry | 焦 | ta⁵⁵ |
| 196 | correct | 正確／正确 (ciáng-káuk), 無綻／无绽 | tsiaŋ⁵³ kɑuʔ³⁵, mɔ²¹ lɑŋ²⁴² |
| 197 | near | 近 (gê̤ṳng), 接近 | køyŋ²⁴², tsieʔ⁵⁵ køyŋ²⁴² |
| 198 | far | 遠／远 | huɔŋ²⁴² |
| 199 | right | 右 (iêu) | iɛu²⁴² |
| 200 | left | 左 (cō̤) | tso³³ |
| 201 | at | 敆, 着 | kaʔ⁵⁵, tuoʔ⁵⁵ |
| 202 | in | 裡勢／里势 (diē-sié) | tie⁵⁵ liɛ²¹³ |
| 203 | with | 共 | køyŋ²⁴² |
| 204 | and | 共 | køyŋ²⁴² |
| 205 | if | 若是 (iŏk-sê), 如果 (ṳ̀-guō) | na⁵² lei²⁴², y³³ kuo³³ |
| 206 | because | 因為／因为 (ĭng-ôi) | iŋ⁵³ uoi²⁴² |
| 207 | name | 名字 (miàng-cê) | miɑŋ²¹ ʒei²⁴² |
Pronunciation: The pronunciation shown is the standard pronunciation in Fuzhou.
Depending on the speakers and the area, the actual pronunciation may differ, more or less significantly, from the shown pronunciation.